NRLF 


UNIVERSITY  FARM 


SF375 
58 


Edward  J.  Wickson. 

The  Shepherd's  Manual. 

A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 
ON 

THE     SHEEP. 

DESIGNED    ESPECIALLY    FOR   AMERICAN    SHEPHERDS. 
BY 

HENRY    STEWART. 


NEW   YORK: 

ORANGE    JUDD     COMPANY, 

245   BROADWAY. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1876,  by  the 

ORANGE   JUDD    COMPANY, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


CONTENTS. 


PREFACE v-vi 

CHAPTER   I. 

THE  SHEEP  AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL  PRODUCT 8-11 

Antiquity  of  Sheep  Husbandry— The  Future  of  Sheep 
Husbandry— Its  Effects  upon  Agriculture— Demand  for 
Mutton  Sheep— Value  of  the  Wool  Product— Extent  of 
Pasturage  in  America. 

CHAPTER   II. 

THE  SUMMER  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  FLOCK 11-33 

Selection  of  a  Sheep  Farm— Effects  of  Soils  upon  the 
Health  of  Sheep— What  is  a  Good  Pasture  ?— Value  of 
Certain  Grasses — The  Western  Plains  as  Sheep  Pasture — 
Pastures— Fodder  Crops— Root  Crops— Folding  Sheep— 
Dog  Guards. 

CHAPTER   HI. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  EWES  AND  LAMBS 33-  49 

Marking  Sheep— Record  for  Breeders— Management  of 
Rams— Care  of  Ewes— Care  of  Lambs— Selecting  Lambs 
for  Breeders— Prevention  of  Disease— Dipping  Preven- 
tive of  Parasites. 

CHAPTER   IV. 

WINTER  MANAGEMENT  OF  SHEEP 49-  81 

Barns  and  Sheds — Feed  Racks — Feeding  Value  of  Differ- 
ent Fodders,  Roots  and  Grains— Experiments  in  Feeding — 
Profit  of  Feeding — Raising  Eaniy  Lambs  for  Market — 
Feeding  Sheep  for  Market — Value  of  Manure — Markets 
for  Sheep. 

(3) 


iv  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

CHAPTER    V. 

PAGE. 

BREEDING  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 81—143 

How  Breeds  are  Established — Improvement  of  Flocks — 
Cross  Breeding— Breeding  for  Sex— Maxims  for  Breeders 
— Native  Breeds — Improvement  of  the  Merinos — The  Me- 
rino Fleece — Long- Wool  Breeds — Medium  and  Short-Wool 
Breeds— Foreign  Breeds -Cross-bred  Sheep— American 
Cross-breeds. 

CHAPTER    VI. 

THE  STRUCTURE  AND  USES  OP  WOOL 142-167 

The  Method  of  Growth  of  Wool— Its  Peculiar  Structure 
—Its  Composition— The  Yolk— Classification  of  Wools- 
Character  of  Merino  Wool— Washing  Wool— Shearing- 
Packing  and  Marketing  the  Fleeces — Production  of  Wool 
in  the  World — Comparative  Values  of  Wool  in  Different 
Countries — Favorable  Conditions  for  Producing  Wool  in 
the  United  States. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  ANATOMY  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  SHEEP 168-349 

Physiology  of  the  Sheep— The  Teeth— The  Bones- The 
Vital  Functions,  Respiration,  Circulation,  and  Digestion — 
The  Causes  and  Prevention  of  Diseases  of  the  Sheep— Dis- 
eases of  the  Respiratory  Organs,  of  the  Digestive  Organs, 
of  the  Blood — Enzootic  Diseases — Epizootic  Diseases — 
Diseases  of  the  Urinary  and  Reproductive  Organs,  of  the 
Brain— Parasitical  Diseases  of  the  Intestines,  of  the  Skin 
—Diseases  of  the  Feet— Diseases  incident  to  Lambing— 
Special  Diseases— Diseases  of  Lambs. 


TABLE  OF  APPROXIMATE  EQUIVALENT  MEASURES., 


PREFACE. 


The  following  Manual  is  designed  to  be  a  hand-book  for  Amer- 
ican shepherds  and  farmers.  It  is  intended  te  be  so  plain  that  a 
farmer,  or  a  farmer's  son,  who  has  never  kept  a  sheep,  may  learn 
from  its  pages  how  to  manage  a  flock  successfully,  and  to  be  so 
complete  that  even  the  experienced  shepherd  may  gather  some 
suggestions  from  it.  When  the  author,  some  years  ago,  began  to 
keep  sheep,  he  sought  in  vain  amongst  the  published  works  a 
simple  practical,  comprehensive  book  upon  sheep  and  sheep-keep- 
ing, suited  to  his  necessities.  The  excellent  works  upon  the 
Merino  and  Fine  Wool  Husbandry  by  Mr.  Randall,  were  the  only 
ones  to  be  obtained  that  were  adapted  for  the  use  of  an  American 
shepherd,  and  these  referred  to  a  special  branch  of  sheep  husbandry 
which  is  becoming  every  year  a  less  and  less  prominent  one.  The 
other  books  on  this  subject  then  extant,  were  either  English  works 
or  compilations  from  them,  and  were  out  of  date  and  incomplete. 
None  of  the  works  gave  a  description  of  the  modern  improved 
breeds  of  sheep  which  have  of  late  become  so  deservedly  popular ; 
or  any  full  or  satisfactory  account  of  the  diseases  of  sheep,  and 
the  remedies  proper  for  them  under  the  modern  systems  of  treat- 
ment which  have  grown  out  of  the  more  accurate  scientific  knowl- 
edge of  the  present  day ;  nor  could  any  information  as  to  the 
vastly  increased  scope  of  this  branch  of  agricultural  industry  in 
America,  be  found  in  any  book.  It  was  necessary  to  learn  by 
experience — in  this  case,  as  in  all  others,  a  costly  teacher — how  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  modern  improved  sheep  in  our  climate  and 
(5) 


YI  THE  SHEFHEED'S  MANUAL. 

under  our  methods  of  culture.  The  results  of  personal  experi- 
ences of  some  years  with  the  characters  of  the  various  modern 
breeds  of  sheep,  and  the  sheep-raising  capabilities  of  many  portions 
of  our  extensive  territory  and  that  of  Canada,  most  of  which  have 
been  visited  with  a  view  to  the  effects  upon  our  sheep  of  the  va- 
rying climate  and  different  soils ;  and  the  careful  study  of  the  dis- 
eases to  which  our  sheep  are  chiefly  subject,  with  those  by  which 
they  may  eventually  be  afflicted  through  unforeseen  accidents ;  as 
well  as  the  methods  of  management  called  for  under  our  circum- 
stances, were  finally  gathered  into  the  shape  in  which  they  are  here 
presented  to  the  shepherds  of  America,  with  the  hope  that  they 
may  be  as  acceptable  and  useful  to  them  as  they  would  have 
been,  when  he  first  undertook  the  care  of  a  flock,  to 

THE  AUTHOB. 
NEW  YOKE.,  1370. 


The  Shepherd's  Manual. 


CHAPTER    I. 
THE    SHEEP   AS   AN   INDUSTRIAL   PRODUCT. 

From  the  earliest  ages  the  sheep  has  been  a  source  of  profit  to 
mankind,  and  its  keeping  and  rearing  an  important  industry. 
Abel,  the  second  son  of  Adam,  chose  sheep-herding  as  his  employ- 
ment, and  although  his  elder  brother  chose  to  cultivate  the  soil, 
the  pastoral  life  became  the  favored  occupation  of  the  human  race 
in  its  early  periods,  and  the  more  toilsome  tillage  of  the  ground 
was  followed  from  necessity  rather  than  from  choice.  With  a 
sparse  population,  a  scarcity  of  labor,  but  at  the  same  time  an 
ample  territory,  the  cultivation  of  flocks  became  in  early  times  the 
readiest  means  of  providing  food  and  clothing,  increasing  the  com- 
forts of  man  and  of  accumulating  transferable  wealth.  Although 
at  first  sight  it  is  a  singular  circumstance,  yet  on  reflection  it  is 
seen  to  be  a  necessity  of  the  case  that  the  territory  upon  which  the 
flocks  of  the  ancient  patriarchs  were  fed  and  tended,  is  still  the 
home  of  shepherds,  and  that  there,  for  forty  centuries,  flocks  have 
wandered  from  pasture  to  pasture  under  the  care  of  their  nomadic 
proprietors.  Where  the  physical  features  of  the  country  were 
favorable  to  pasturage,  there  the  first  civilized  occupation  was  that 
of  keeping  sheep,  and  so  it  remains  to  this  day. 

In  view  of  its  bearing  upon  the  future  of  sheep  husbandry  in 
the  United  States,  it  is  important  to  remember  this  fact,  that  where 
peculiarly  favorable  physical  features  of  the  country  were  present, 
and  the  shepherd  occupied  the  land,  there  the  shepherd  and  his 
flock  retain  possession  until  this  day.  Thus,  at  the  time  of  the 
conquest  of  Spain  by  the  ancient  Romans,  that  country  was  cele- 
brated for  its  flocks  and  the  quality  of  its  wool,  and  to-day  the 
(7) 


8  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

Spanish  Merino  is  equally  celebrated,  although  through  adventi- 
tious circumstances,  but  chiefly  political  disturbances,  its  pre-emi- 
nence has  been  lost  to  Spam,  and  other  countries  enjoy  its  fruits. 
As  civilization  progressed  stage  by  stage,  and  garments  of  man- 
ufactured wool  displaced  those  of  skins,  careful  breeding  began  to 
improve  the  fleece,  and  varieties  among  sheep  became  fixed  in 
type.  Before  the  Christian  era  the  fine  wools  of  Italy  were  noted, 
and  the  fineness  of  the  fleece  was  cultivated  to  a  degree  unknown 
to  us  of  the  present  day.  The  sheep  of  that  period  were  housed 
and  clothed,  their  skins  were  oiled  and  moistened  with  wine,  and 
their  fleeces  were  combed  and  washed  repeatedly,  in  order  that 
the  quality  of  the  wool  might  be  refined  as  far  as  possible.  Al- 
though this  excessive  refinement  destroyed  the  vigor  and  impaired 
the  constitution  of  the  sheep,  yet  their  descendants,  inferior  in 
form,  as  might  be  expected,  are  still  fine-wooled  sheep.  Thus  far 
the  improvement  in  sheep  operated  only  towards  refining  the 
fleece,  and  the  carcass  was  a  secondary  object,  only  cared  for  so 
far  as  it  could  serve  as  a  vehicle  for  carrying  the  wool.  The  lamb 
of  the  flock  was  considered  a  choice  morsel,  but  the  mature  sheep 
was  neglected  as  an  article  of  food.  It  is  only  in  recent  times  that 
the  excellence  of  mutton  has  been  made  an  object  hi  the  improve- 
ment of  sheep.  At  the  present  it  is  only  in  sparsely  populated 
countries  that  sheep  are  cultivated  for  wool  alone,  while  in  densely 
peopled  localities  the  production  of  mutton  is  of  greater  consider- 
ation than  that  of  wool,  or  at  least  is  of  equal  value  to  it.  At  the 
present  time,  proximity  to,  or  distance  from  market,  decides  the 
choice  of  breeds,  and  in  fact  this  consideration  alone  has  in  some 
cases  been  the  moving  influence  in  the  creation  of  new  varieties 
or  breeds  specially  adapted  to  certain  localities.  In  a  similar  man- 
ner the  necessities  of  sheep-breeders  have  led  them  to  make  some 
important  modifications  in  their  methods  of  agriculture,  so  that 
while  the  character  of  their  flocks  has  been  changed  for  the  better, 
their  agriculture  has  been  improved,  the  product  of  the  land  in- 
creased, and  its  value  advanced,  until  profitable  sheep  culture  has 
become  synonymous  with  the  most  profitable  farming.  In  fact, 
the  character  of  the  farm  has  been  indexed  by  the  character  of  the 
flock  reared  upon  it.  This  improvement  has  in  greater  part  oc- 
curred only  in  connection  with  the  rearing  of  mutton  sheep.  To 
feed  these  heavy  bodied  sheep  profitably,  it  has  been  found  neces- 
sary to  raise  large  crops  of  cheap  roots  and  luxuriant  green  crops ; 
and  to  raise  these  crops,  the  most  skillful  tillage,  the  cleanest  cul- 
ture, and  the  most  liberal  manuring  have  been  requisite.  In  this 
way  the  product  of  the  soil  has  been  vastly  increased,  and  the 


PRODUCTION   OF  MUTTON.  9 

sheep,  directly  and  indirectly,  has  been  both  the  gainer  and  the 
means  of  gain. 

The  demand  for  mutton  as  an  agreeable  and  cheap  food  is  stead- 
ily increasing.  The  markets  of  the  city  of  New  York  alone  re- 
quire more  than  one  million  sheep  per  annum.  Farmers  formerly 
habituated  to  the  daily  use  of  pork  are  becoming  mutton  eaters, 
and  the  convenience  of  a  few  sheep  upon  the  farm  merely  to  sup- 
ply the  family  table  is  now  appreciated  to  a  much  greater  extent 
than  ever  before.  This  cultivation  of  sheep  for  mutton  alone  is  a 
branch  of  agriculture  which  is  yearly  becoming  more  important. 
As  yet  we  possess  no  native  variety  of  mutton  sheep.  The  carcass  of 
the  "native  "  sheep,  so  called— but  which  is  really  a  heterogeneous 
mixture  of  all  those  breeds  which  have  been  brought  to  this  coun- 
try, and  which  having  been  permitted  to  increase  promiscuously, 
have  perpetuated  only  their  poorest  qualities— is  unworthy  the 
name  of  mutton ;  and  those  flocks  of  imported  sheep  of  better 
character,  such  as  the  Southdowns,  Leicesters,  or  Cotswolds,  are 
either  allowed  to  deteriorate,  or  are  kept  for  breeding  purposes. 
It  is  very  true  that  a  really  good  carcass  of  mutton  rarely  finds  its 
way  to  our  markets,  except  from  Canada,  where  almost  the  sole 
attention  is  given  to  breeding  sheep  for  mutton.  At  the  same  time 
there  is  a  demand  for  mutton,  both  of  that  substantial  kind  which 
is  represented  by  legs  of  16  to  20  Ibs.  in  weight,  handsome  saddles 
and  good  shoulders,  and  that  more  delicately  flavored  kind  repre- 
sented by  the  small  legs  or  quarters  of  the  Welsh  sheep. 

Unfortunately  this  fact  is  not  generally  known  to  farmers,  and 
if  it  were,  it  is  equally  unfortunate  that  we  as  yet  have  not  the 
kind  of  sheep  to  meet  the  demand.  Before  this  excellent  and 
wholesome  food  can  become  as  popular  as  it  ought  to  be,  and 
sheep  keeping  can  become  as  profitable  as  it  may  be,  farmers  must 
be  better  informed  as  to  the  character  of  the  sheep  needed,  the 
manner  in  which  they  may  be  bred,  and  the  methods  by  which 
they  may  be  fitted  for  the  market  This  necessary  information 
must  include  a  knowledge  of  the  modern  breeds  which  have 
usurped  the  place  of  the  old  kinds,  and  the  peculiar  management 
of  the  new  races  of  sheep,  as  well  as  of  the  special  crops  needed 
for  fodder,  and  the  methods  of  cultivating  them.  Heretofore  in 
place  of  this  practical  information,  American  farmers  have  been 
treated  to  long  dissertations  upon  the  origin  and  history  of  the 
sheep,  and  descriptions  of  foreign  breeds  which  are  of  no  possible 
value  or  interest  to  them. 

The  sheep,  in  addition  to  its  value  as  a  food  producer,  yields  to 
its  owner  an  annual  tribute  in  the  shape  of  its  fleece,  which  in  the 


10 

aggregate  is  a  most  important  contribution  to  the  comfort  and  in- 
dustry of  the  people.  In  1870  there  were  nearly  30  millions  of 
sheep  in  the  United  States,  and  the  wool  production  in  that  year 
amounted  to  120  million  pounds,  estimating  the  average  weight  of 
the  fleeces  at  4  pounds  each.  The  value  of  this  wool  in  the  farm- 
ers' hands  would  reach  at  the  lowest  estimate,  $40,000,000.  But  so 
far  from  being  anywhere  equal  to  the  demand  for  this  staple,  the 
supply  was  less  than  our  yearly  needs  by  a  quantity  equal  to  a 
value  of  more  than  $40,000,000,  and  wool  to  this  amount  is  annu- 
ally imported  from  foreign  countries.  Besides  this  in  wool,  there 
is  annually  imported  with  it  the  value  of  $20,000,000  in  foreign  la- 
bor, which  has  been  expended  in  manufacturing  wool  into  cloth 
and  other  woolen  goods.  Our  own  necessities,  therefore,  demand 
an  increase  in  the  supply  of  wool  equal  to  our  present  production. 
This  wool,  if  produced  here,  would  not  only  use  up  a  large  quan- 
tity of  corn  now.  thrown  upon  the  markets  of  the  world,  and 
therefore  enhance  the  value  of  that  which  would  remain  for  dis- 
posal ;  but  its  manufacture  into  cloths  and  goods  would  employ  a 
large  number  of  persons  who  are  now  engaged  in  raising  agricul- 
tural products  for  sale,  and  are  therefore  in  active  competition 
with  other  farmers.  The  encouragement  of  sheep  cultivation, 
therefore,  has  a  national  importance,  and  is  a  subject  which  bears 
directly  upon  the  interests  of  farmers.  To  increase  the  wool  pro- 
duct to  a  par  with  the  necessities  of  the  country  at  the  present 
time,  would  alone  involve  the  passage  through  their  hands  of 
'$60,000,000  yearly — an  immense  sum,  which  now  goes  into  the 
pockets  of  foreigners,  instead  of  those  of  our  own  people. 

The  scope  for  an  increase  in  our  wool  product  is  comparatively 
boundless.  A  full  third  of  the  territory  of  the  United  States  is  a 
grand  sheep  pasture  of  the  most  favorable  character.  Vast  plains 
bearing  abundance  of  the  most  nutritious  herbage,  in  the  most 
healthful  climate,  and  the  very  best  conditions  for  the  profitable 
breeding  of  fine  and  middle  wool  sheep,  and  which  are  valueless 
for  any  other  than  pastoral  purposes,  stretch  from  the  100th  me- 
ridian for  500  miles  west  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  from  north 
to  south  for  1,500  miles.  In  addition  to  this  vast  tract, upon  which 
a  hundred  million  sheep  could  feed  and  thrive  with  ease,  there  are 
immense  mountain  ranges,  extensive  valleys,  and  again  beyond 
these,  great  plains,  altogether  covering  a  still  larger  area,  of  which  a 
great  portion  is  admirably  fitted  for  the  pasturing  of  sheep.  With 
so  great  a  scope  for  the  cheap  production  of  wool,  it  seems  to  be 
a  strange  thing,  that  instead  of  exporting  largely  of  this  staple,  as 
we  might  and  should  do,  the  United  States  on  the  contrary  is  one 


PRODUCTION  OF  WOOL.  11. 

of  the  largest  buyers  in  foreign  markets.  Again,  on  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  there  are  millions  of  acres  of  land  now  useless  that  would, 
if  cleared  and  cultivated,  make  excellent  sheep  farms  for  the  pro- 
duction of  the  choicest  mutton  sheep.  There  are  numberless  salt 
marshes  upon  which  sheep,  naturally  fitted  through  long  years  of 
adaptation  for  just  such  pasturage,  could  be  made  to  yield  mutton 
of  the  most  delicate  flavor.  There  are  also  hills  and  rocky  moun- 
tains upon  whose  sweet  herbage  hardy  races  of  sheep  could  be 
made  to  thrive  with  profit ;  and  further  inland,  highly  cultivated 
farms,  where  heavy  crops  of  green  fodder  and  roots  could  be  raised, 
that  might  carry  flocks  of  large  framed  sheep,  yielding  combing 
W0ol — now  so  much  used  in  clothing  materials  for  both  sexes, 
and  the  demand  for  which  is  always  ahead  of  the  supply.  And 
further  south,  where  it  is  possible  to  pasture  sheep  the  year 
round,  but  where  those  which  are  now  kept  are  so  neglected 
that  some  of  them  are  never  shorn,  there  is  .also  vast  room  to 
change  the  overdone  cotton  production  for  the  equally  easy  but 
more  profitable  production  of  wool  which  in  that  climate,  by  the 
exercise  of  proper  care,  may  be  grown  of  the  finest  quality  of 
staple.  What  a  vast  field  opens  upon  our  view  when  we  consider 
the  extent  of  the  territory  which  we  possess  suitable  for  sheep  cul- 
ture ;  and  what  profit  and  increase  of  national  wealth  is  there  in 
this  business  to  those  who  undertake  it  as  the  occupation  of  their 
lives — not  only  for  a  short  period  and  intermittingly,  and  then  to 
be  abandoned  for  some  other  temporary  speculative  business — but 
with  a  desire  and  determination  to  succeed  through  the  exercise 
of  patience,  perseverance,  and  skill. 


CHAPTEE    II. 
SUMMER   MANAGEMENT    OF  SHEEP. 

The  selection  of  a  suitable  farm  should  be  the  first  care  of  a 
person  who  intends  to  devote  his  time  and  capital  to  the  rearing 
of  sheep.  To  become  a  successful  shepherd,  requires  that  a  person 
should  have  a  liking  for  the  business,  and  possess  tact,  patience, 
and  perseverance  sufficient  to  resist  the  temptations  which  may 
arise  at  seasons  of  depression  to  abandon  it  for  some  other  tempo- 
rarily more  promising  pursuit.  Having  a  determination  to  stick 


12  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

to  his  flock,  he  must  have  a  farm  suited  to  its  special  needs  or  it 
will  not  thrive.  Sheep  cannot  bear  damp ;  and  undrained  pastures 
are  fatal  to  their  welfare.  Luxuriance  of  herbage  is  not  generally 
favorable  unless  the  land  is  heavily  stocked  and  the  pasture  kept 
short  and  closely  cropped.  Old  permanent  meadows,  in  which  a 
variety  of  grasses  are  found,  are  better  than  artificial  meadows 
which  form  part  of  a  rotation  with  other  crops.  With  a  portion 
of  such  permanent  meadow,  there  may  be  many  cultivated  crops 
grown  upon  the  other  portions  of  the  farm  upon  which  the  sheep 
may  be  folded  with  benefit  both  to  themselves  and  the  land. 

The  land  most  suitable  for  sheep  is  one  that  is  naturally  drained, 
with  a  sandy  loam  or  gravelly  soil  and  subsoil,  and  which  bears 
spontaneously  short,  fine,  herbage,  largely  mixed  with  white  clover. 
It  should  be  rolling,  and  may  be  hilly  in  character  rather  than  flat 
and  level.  Any  low  spots  or  hollows  in  which  aquatic  or  marsh 
plants  grow,  are  very  objectionable,  and  should  be  thoroughly 
drained.  One  such  spot  upon  an  otherwise  admirable  farm  may 
infect  a  flock  with  deadly  disease.  No  domestic  animal  is  more 
readily  affected  by  adverse  circumstances  than  the  sheep,  and  none 
has  less  spirit  or  power  to  resist  them.  Virgil,  the  ancient  poet,  a 
close  observer  of  such  matters,  says  of  them,  "  Oves  semper  infelix 
pecus"  (Sheep  are  always  an  unhappy  flock),  and  many  shepherds 
since  his  day  have  found  reason  to  hold  the  same  belief.  But  the 
experienced  sheepmaster  has  no  fear  on  this  score.  He  knows 
that  a  reputation  for  success  with  sheep  is  "  never  gained  without 
merit,  nor  lost  without  deserving,"  and  that  failure  is  not  want 
of  luck,  as  is  so  frequently  declared,  but  the  consequence  of  ignor- 
ance or  bad  management.  The  careful  shepherd  will  not  wait 
to  cure,  he  is  prompt  to  prevent ;  and  every  defeat  is  made  a  new 
lesson  for  study  and  an  example  for  future  avoidance.  It  is  by 
long  experience  that  shepherds  have  learned  that  the  first  requi- 
site for  success  in  their  business  is,  the  choice  of  a  farm  upon  which 
their  flocks  will  enjoy  perfect  health,  and  that  dry  ness  of  soil  and 
of  air  is  the  first  necessity  for  their  well  being.  By  a  careful  and 
judicious  choice  in  this  respect,  most  of  the  ills  to  which  sheep  are 
subject,  with  all  their  contingent  losses  to  their  owners,  are 
avoided. 

The  character  of  the  soil  upon  which  sheep  are  pastured  has  a 
great  influence  in  modifying  the  character  of  the  sheep.  Upon 
the  kind  of  soil  of  course  depends  the  character  of  the  herbage 
upon  which  the  flock  feeds.  Certain  soils,  such  as  those  consist- 
ing of  decomposed  granite  or  feldspar,  and  which  are  rich  in  pot- 
ash, are  not  generally  favorable  for  sheep.  Even  turnips  raised  on 


ON   SOILS.  13 

such  lands  sometimes  affect  the  sheep  injuriously,  producing  dis- 
ease under  which  they  waste  away,  become  watery  about  the  eyes, 
fall  in  about  the  flanks,  and  assume  a  generally  unhealthy  appear- 
ance. Upon  removal  to  a  limestone,  or  a  dry  sandstone  soil,  sheep 
thus  affected,  improve  at  once  and  rapidly  recover.  The  lambs, 
as  might  be  expected,  are  most  easily  affected,  and  many  are  yearly 
lost  by  early  death  upon  lands  of  an  unfavorable  character.  As 
a  rule,  lands  upon  which  granite,  feldspathic  or  micaceous  rocks 
intrude,  or  whose  soils  are  derived  from  the  degradation  of  such 
rocks,  should  be  avoided  by  the  shepherd.  Such  soils  are,  however, 
not  without  their  uses,  and  fortunately  are  excellently  adapted  to 
the  dairy.  The  soils  most  to  be  preferred  are  sandstone  and  lime- 
stone lands,  of  a  free,  dry,  porous  character,  upon  which  the  finer 
grasses  flourish.  The  soils  which  are  derived  from  rocks  called 
carboniferous,  which  accompany  coal  deposits,  or  are  found  in  the 
regions  in  which  coal  is  mined,  are  those  upon  which  sheep  have 
been  bred  with  the  most  success.  The  original  home  of  the  Lei- 
cester sheep,  as  well  as  that  of  the  famous  Shropshires,  is  on  the  red 
sandstone ;  the  Lincoln  is  raised  on  the  alluvial  soils  based  on 
limestone ;  the  Cotswold  has  had  its  home  for  centuries  on  the 
limestone  Cotswold  hills ;  the  Southdown,  Hampshiredown,  and 
Oxforddowns,  are  native  to  the  chalk  hills  and  downs  of  southern 
England ;  the  Scotch  Cheviot  and  the  hardy  black-faced  Scotch 
sheep  thrive  on  sandstone  hills  and  mountains  of  trap  rocks  which 
rise  amongst  them  ;  the  fine  wools  of  Yorkshire  are  produced  on 
magnesian  limestone  soils ;  and  to  come  to  our  own  soils,  we  find 
the  American  Merino  reaching  perfection  on  the  limestone  hills  of 
Vermont,  beneath  which  fine  marbles  are  quarried.  Unfortu- 
nately this  is  the  only  instance  we  possess  of  having  given  a  local 
habitation  to  a  race  of  sheep  in  America ;  but  how  soon  we  shall 
have  produced  or  acclimated  several  breeds  of  sheep,  which  will 
take  their  peculiarities  from  the  locality  in  which  they  are  bred 
and  raised,  is  only  a  question  of  time.  Peat  or  marsh  lands  are 
unfavorable  for  sheep  farms.  Salt  marshes  near  the  coast,  how- 
ever, may  be  excepted  from  this  general  condemnation,  as  the 
saline  herbage  acts  as  a  specific  against  some  of  the  parasitic  dis- 
eases— the  liver-rot  mainly — to  which  sheep  are  subject  upon 
marshy  pastures.  The  Romney-marsh  sheep  of  England  are  bred 
successfully  upon  the  alluvial  soils  of  reclaimed  marshes,  and  pro- 
duce good  wool  and  a  heavy  carcass.  The  gigantic  Lincoln,  the 
largest  sheep  bred,  originated  and  thrives  in  perfection  upon 
drained  alluvial  soils. 
The  dry,  friable  nature  and  porous  character  of  the  soil  has  as 


14  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

much  to  do  with  the  health  and  growth  of  sheep  as  the  geological 
character  of  the  rocks  upon  which  it  is  based,  or  from  which  it  has 
been  derived.  The  census  returns  of  England  show  that  the  high- 
est percentage  of  sheep  to  the  100  acres,  is  found  precisely  NY  here 
the  soil  is  naturally  drained  and  dry,  and  the  lowest,  where  clay 
abounds,  and  damp,  cold  soils  with  rank,  coarse  herbage  are  gen- 
eral. In  our  own  country,  although  the  time  has  been  far  too 
short  as  yet  for  this  condition  to  operate  largely,  we  find  the  same 
fact  curiously  developed,  and  Ohio  and  western  Pennsylvania, 
with  their  extensive  coal  bearing  formations  underlying  dry  roll- 
ing fields,  possess  more  sheep  than  any  other  district,  while  New 
York,  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Michigan,  which  cover  an  extensive 
deposit  of  limestones  and  sandstones,  with  naturally  dry  soils,  come 
next  on  the  list.  The  vast  stretch  of  prairies  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  and  of  plains  west  of  the  Missouri  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, chiefly  underlaid  with  limestones  and  sandstones,  and  especi- 
ally remarkable  for  a  dry,  porous  soil,  which  bears  a  rich  carpet 
of  the  best  sheep  pastures  in  the  world,  have  already  proved  them- 
selves to  be  well  adapted  to  the  successful  growth  of  flocks  bear- 
ing fine  and  medium  wools.  The  rich  alluvial  valleys  of  the  east- 
ern rivers  where  naturally  or  artificially  drained,  have  been  found 
to  be  fitted  for  the  production  of  large  bodied  sheep  bearing  the 
lustrous  combing  wools.  All  these  localities  with  the  hills  and 
valleys  of  the  Middle  States  will  in  course  of  time  have  their  flocks 
suitable  in  character  to  the  circumstances  in  which  they  are  kept. 
But  it  will  only  be  in  consequence  of  persistence  in  careful  breed- 
ing and  culture,  that  the  final  type  for  each  locality  will  be 
reached ;  for  while  the  effects  of  soil  and  locality  are  unavoidable 
and  imperative,  the  shepherd  must  be  able  to  discover  these  effects 
and  aid  in  giving  them  their  due  development  if  early  success  is 
to  be  secured.  But  in  whatever  locality  it  may  be,  if  the  soil 
is  not  naturally  drained,  profitable  sheep  farms  may  be  sought 
in  vain.  The  profit  from  sheep  raising  as  a  special  business  will 
not  permit  of  high-priced  lauds.  Where  sheep  are  kept  only  as  a 
branch  of  general  farming,  it  may  pay  to  drain  the  soil  artificially  ; 
but  without  drainage,  natural  or  artificial,  sheep  cannot  thrive. 
The  sheep  must  have  a  dry  foot  or  disease  follows. 

The  character  of  the  herbage  depends  upon  that  of  the  soil,  and 
the  character  of  the  sheep  is  governed  by  that  of  the  pasture.  It 
is  a  very  casual  observer  who  thinks  that  all  kinds  of  grass  are  the 
same,  and  are  equally  proper  for  sheep.  The  sheep  itself 
knows  better  than  this,  and  every  shepherd  has  learned  that 
his  sheep  will  seek  particular  spots  in  preference  to  others  in  the 


ON  PASTURES.  15 

same  field.  It  has  been  well  said  that  "  the  dead  earth  and  the 
living  animal  are  but  links  of  the  same  chain  of  natural  existences, 
the  plant  being  the  connecting  bond  by  which  they  are  tied  to- 
gether." The  flesh  and  wool  of  the  sheep,  therefore,  are  but  pro- 
ducts from  the  soil,  and  contain  nothing  but  what  has  existed  in 
the  plants  which  the  sheep  have  consumed.  When  wool  is  clean 
and  dry,  100  pounds  of  it  contain  17  pounds  of  nitrogen,  and  5 
pounds  of  sulphur.  When  the  pasture  is  sufficiently  nutritious 
and  the  sheep  is  in  good  health,  a  quantity  of  soapy,  greasy  matter, 
called  yolk,  adheres  to  the  fleece.  When  this  is  abundant  it  is  a 
proof  that  the  food  of  the  sheep  is  healthful  and  sufficient.  When 
it  is  deficient,  and  the  wool  is  harsh  and  dry  to  the  touch,  it  is  a 
sign  that  the  sheep's  health  is  suffering  from  defective  nutriment. 
This  yolk  contains  a  large  proportion  of  potash.  To  be  properly 
nutritious,  the  food  must  contain  this  needed  sulphur  and  pot- 
ash, along  with  nitrogen .  and  other  necessary  matters.  A  fair  test 
of  the  requisite  quality  of  the  food  of  the  sheep  may  be  taken  from 
the  composition  of  the  flesh  and  blood  of  the  animal,  for  there  is 
nothing  in  the  flesh,  skin,  bones,  or  wool  that  does  not  exist  in 
the  blood.  The  following  are  the  inorganic  or  mineral  materials 
contained  in  the  ash  of  the  blood  and  flesh  of  an  animal : 

Blood.  Flesh. 

Phosphate  of  Soda 16.77  45.10 

Chloride  of  Sodium 59.34  )  ,-  «. 

Chloride  of  Potassium 6.12  ) 

Sulphate  of  Soda 3.85  trace 

Phosphate  of  Magnesia 4.19  ) 

Oxide  and  Phosphate  of  Iron 8.28V        6.84 

Sulphate  of  Lime 1.45  ) 

100.00  97.88 

The  bones  of  the  sheep  contain  from  60  to  70  per  cent  of  phos- 
phate and  carbonate  of  lime,  with  a  little  magnesia.  The  excre- 
ment, both  solid  and  liquid,  of  the  sheep  contain  a  large  variety  of 
mineral  elements,  which  are  also  necessary  to  the  healthful  animal 
economy.  The  urine  contains  two  per  cent  of  mineral  matter, 
and  the  dung  13|  per  cent,  the  composition  of  which  is  as  follows : 

ASH  OF  URINE. 

Sulphate  of  Potash 2.98 

Sulphate  of  Soda 7.72 

Chloride  of  Sodium 32.01 

Chloride  of  Potassium 12.00 

Carbonate  of  Lime 82 

Carbonate  of  Soda 42.25 

Carbonate  of  Magnesia 46 

Phosphate  of  Lime,  Magnesia,  and  Iron 70 

Silica !............ JL.06 

100.00 


16  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

ASH  OF    DUNG. 

Silica 50.11 

Potash 8.32 

Soda 3.28 

Chloride  of  Sodium 14 

Phosphate  of  Iron 3.98 

Lime 18.15 

Magnesia ." 5.45 

Phosphoric  Acid 7.52 

Sulphuric  Acid 2.69     ' 

99.64 

When  it  is  seen  how  much  earthy  matter  is  needed  to  build  up 
a  healthy  organism,  and  supply  the  waste  of  the  sheep,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  food  must  be  of  a  character  consistent  with  these 
demands,  and  if  by  reason  of  deficiency  in  the  soil,  these  matters 
are  not  supplied,  the  animal  suffers,  or  is  not  fully  developed.  The 
grasses  or  other  herbage  upon  which  the  sheep  subsist,  must  there- 
fore be  such  as  will  supply  the  peculiar  needs  of  the  animal,  or 
they  must  be  supplemented  by  additional  food.  When  sheep  feed 
upon  grasses  deficient  in  the  required  earthy  matters,  they  become 
weak  in  constitution,  and  predisposed  to  disease.  To  prevent  dis- 
ease and  keep  the  flock  in  health,  the  pasture  must  be  supple- 
mented by  other  feed  which  will  supply  the  deficiency,  and  thus 
the  cost  of  maintaining  the  flock  is  increased.  A  pasture  that  will 
supply  all  the  necessary  nutriment  must  contain  those  varieties  of 
grasses  that  have  been  found  by  experience  most  suitable  for 
sheep.  Of  the  common  grasses  there  are  several  varieties  which 
have  a  high  reputation  for  this  purpose.  The  best  of  these  are  of 
a  low  growth  and  creeping  habit,  with  fine,  short  herbage.  The 
grasses  known  as  PJileum  pratense,  (Timothy) ;  Arrhenatherum  ave~ 
naceum,  (Tall  Oat  Grass);  Poa  annua,  (Annual  Spear  Grass); 
Poa  pratensis,  (Kentucky  Blue  Grass) ;  Festuca  ovina,  (Sheep's  Fes- 
cue) ;  Poa  serotina,  (False  Red-Top) ;  Agrostis  vulgaris,  (Red-Top) ; 
Dactylis  glomerata,  (Orchard  Grass,)  when  closely  pastured  ;  Alope- 
curus  pratensis,  (Meadow  Foxtail,)  with  Trifolium  repem,  (White 
Clover) ;  or  Plantago  lanceolata,  (the  Narrow-leaved  Plantain  or  Rib 
Grass,)  and  some  other  common  plants,  form  a  desirable  herbage 
for  sheep.  The  Buffalo  Grass  and  the  species  of  Bouteloua,  com- 
monly called  mesquit  grasses  of  the  west,  with  the  large  variety  of 
leguminous  wild  plants,  make  up  a  pasture  that  cannot  be  excelled. 
The  occasional  dressing  of  pastures  with  bone-dust,  salt,  and  sul- 
phate of  lime,  is  of  great  service,  and  furnishes  a  supply  of  those 
mineral  matters  which  are  indispensable. 

The  value  of  the  different  pasture  grasses  are  -shown  by  the  fol- 


VALUE   OF  VAEIOUS   GRASSES. 


17 


lowing  table  of  analyses  made  by  Professor  Way.     These  are  of 
the  green,  fresh  plants  as  taken  from  the  field  when  in  full  growth. 

COMPOSITION  OF  NATURAL   GRASSES,  (100  PARTS,)  TAKEN  FRESH 
FROM  THE    FIELD. 


|| 

i 

||. 

| 

1 

NAMES   OF    GRASS. 

. 

|l 

| 

Ill 

I 

1 

1 

*3 

I 

i|£ 

I 

V 

Sweet-Scented  Vernal, 

(A  ntkoxanlhum  odoratum)  

80.35 

2.05 

.67 

8.54 

7.15 

1.34 

Meadow  Foxtail, 

80.20 

2.44 

.52 

8.59 

6.76 

1.55 

Tall  Oat  Grass, 

(Arrhenatherutti  avenaceum)  

72.65 

3.54 

.87 

11.21 

9.37 

2.36 

Yellow  Oat  Grass, 

(Avena  flavescens)  

60.40 

2.96 

1.04 

18.66 

14.22 

2.72 

Quaking  Grass, 
(Brizo,  media)  

51.85 

2.92 

1.45 

22.60 

17.00 

4.17 

Orchard  Grass, 

(Dactylis  glomeratd)  

70.00 

4.06 

.94 

13.30 

10.11 

1.59 

Hard  Fescue, 

(Festuca  duTiusculd). 

69.33 

3.70 

1.02 

12.46 

11.83 

1.66 

Timothy, 

(Phlewn  pratense)    

57.21 

4.86 

1.50 

22.85 

11.32 

2.26 

Blue  Grass, 

(Poo*  protensis)  

67.14 

3.41 

.86 

14.15 

12.49 

1.95 

White  Clover, 

(  Trifolium  repens)  

79.71 

3.80 

.89 

8.14 

5.38 

2.08 

Narrow-leaved  Plantain,  Rib  Grass, 

(Plantaao  lanceolatd)  .  .  . 

84.78 

2.18 

.56 

6.06 

5.10 

1.32 

Several  of  these  grasses — the  oat  grasses,  quaking  grass,  orchard 
grass,  timothy,  and  blue  grass,  for  instance — are  seen  to  be  of  high 
nutritive  value,  but  yet  some  of  the  other  grasses  and  plants  found 
in  good  pastures  are  not  to  be  despised  on  account  of  their  seem- 
ingly defective  character  as  shown  by  these  analyses.  Some  of  the 
less  nutritious  kinds  are  greedily  eaten  by  sheep,  and  in  furnishing 
a  change  of  diet,  as  well  as  by  reason  of  their  aromatic  properties, 
help  to  stimulate  the  appetite  and  preserve  the  health. 

Besides  the  grasses  and  other  plants  mentioned,  there  are  sev- 
eral having  an  aromatic  or  astringent  character,  which  are  pur- 
posely introduced  into  pastures  for  their  medicinal  effect  upon  the 
sheep.  Parsley,  Yarrow,  and  Wormwood  are  the  plants  chiefly 
so  used.  Pcirsley,  (Garum  Petrosetinum,  or  Petroselinum  sativum, 
of  the  older  authors),  is  a  biennial  plant  well  known  as  a  garden 
herb.  It  is  greedily  eaten  by  sheep,  and  acts  upon  the  liver  and 
kidneys,  or  is  so  supposed  to  act ;  for  this  reason  it  has  been  con- 
sidered and  recommended  by  shepherds  as  a  preventive  of  those 


18  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

diseases  known  as  "  rot,"  and  red  water.  Hares  and  rabbits,  which 
are  also  subject  to  the  rot,  and  the  presence  of  the  accompanying 
parasite,  the  "  liver  fluke,"  will  travel  long  distances  in  quest  of 
this  herb,  and  ground  upon  which  it  abounds  will  very  soon  be 
eaten  bare  by  them.  For  these  reasons  it  is  usual  in  England  to 
sow  one  pound  of  seed  per  acre  in  permanent  pastures  where  it 
reproduces  itself  from  seed.  It  is  a  biennial  plant  seeding  the 
;  second  year  of  its  growth. 

Yarrow,  (Achillea  MillefoUum),  a  plant  of  the  order  to  which 
chamoinile  belongs,  is  a  perennial  bitter  astringent  herb  natural- 
ized in  this  country  from  Europe.  Sheep  are  greedily  fond  of  it, 
and  it  is  not  to  be  doubted  that  this  instinctive  desire  is  prompted 
by  a  natural  need  for  it,  not  so  much  as  a  food,  but  as  a  medicine 
and  a  tonic.  It  is  usually  sown  in  out  of  the  way  places  on  the 
borders  of  pastures  or  lanes  to  which  sheep  have  access,  and  where 
they  can  go  when  instinctively  desirous  of  the  plant  without  being 
driven,  and  so  that  it  may  not  become  troublesome  as  a  weed  by 
unduly  spreading  in  the  pasture.  It  thrives  best  on  sandy  banks 
or  the  hilly  borders  of  woods  upon  sandy  soil.  The  Ox  Eye 
Daisy,  (Chrysanthemum  Leucanihemum),  a  plant  of  the  same  botan- 
ical order  with  the  Yarrow,  is  also  readily  cropped  by  sheep,  the 
blossoms  being  especially  attractive  to  lambs.  Another  related 
plant,  the  well  known  Mugwort,  (Artemisia  vulgaris\  sometimes,  but 
improperly,  called  wormwood,  also  naturalized  here  from  Europe, 
is  greedily  eaten  by  sheep.  It  is  also  bitter  and  aromatic  and  tonic 
rather  than  nutritive.  But  these  aromatic  plants  must  not  be  sup- 
posed to  be  worthless  as  food,  for  the  analysis  of  yarrow  shows  it 
to  be  possessed  of  nutritive  qualities  ;  100  parts  of  the  dry  herb 
contain,  according  to  Professor  Way,  as  follows  : 

ANALYSIS  OF  YARROW. 

Albuminoids  or  Flesh.  Formers  ..............  10.34  per  cent. 

Fatty  Matters  ...............................  2.51  ' 

Carbonaceous  or  Heat  Producing  Matters.  .  .  .45.46  ' 


100.00  "        " 

Amongst  other  common  plants  readily  eaten  by  sheep  is  goose- 
foot,  or  "  Lamb's-quarters,"  (Chenopodium  album),  which  grows 
plentifully  all  over  our  states  and  territories,  being  one  of  the  most 
common  weeds  upon  newly  broken  prairies  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  which  belongs  to  the  same  botanical  order  of  plants  as 
the  beet  and  the  mangel  wurtzel.  In  addition  there  are  several 
varieties  of  sea  weed  and  other  maritime  plants  which  grow  upon 


GRASSES   OF  THE   PLAINS.  19 

the  shores  that  are  useful  for  the  subsistence  of  sheep.  These 
plants  are  rich  in  the  mineral  constituents  of  common  salt,  in 
starch  and  albumen,  and  in  some  localities,  flocks  of  sheep  upon 
the  sea  coasts  and  islands  exist  wholly  upon  this  adventitious  pas- 
turage. A  notable  case  is  stated  in  a  recent  publication,  of  a  large 
flock  of  several  hundred  sheep  which,  for  years,  has  subsisted  and 
thrived  wholly  upon  sea  weed  and  wild  herbage  on  an  island  off 
the  coast  of  Maine,  and  there  are  many  others  in  which  farmers 
adjacent  to  the  sea  coast  in  that  state  and  other  parts  of  New 
England,  subsist  their  sheep  chiefly  during  the  winter  upon  the 
sea  weed  which  is  cast  upon  the  shores.  These  cases,  however,  are 
only  valuable  as  showing  how  these  really  hardy  and  easily  accli- 
mated animals  may  be  made  to  thrive  and  yield  their  valuable  pro- 
ducts of  food  and  clothing,  under  the  poorest  conditions  as  surely, 
if  not  with  equal  profit,  as  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances. 
The  value  of  the  herbage  which  covers  the  wide  plains  of  the 
west  cannot  be  predicated  as  yet  from  any  chemical  analysis  or 
scientific  examinations.  In  the  light  of  practical  experience  we 
do  not  need  these  useful  aids  and  helps.  The  fact  that  the  grasses 
which  cover  those  plains  have  supported  and  fattened  countless 
millions  of  buffalo  and  antelope,  and  the  experience  already  gained 
in  keeping  sheep  on  the  plains,  are  amply  sufficient  to  attest  the 
nutritive  value  of  those  grasses.  The  Buffalo-grass,  (Buchloe  dao 
tyloides),  is  one  of  the  most  nutritious  of  all  grasses.  Its  creeping 
root  stems  are  always  green  and  of  great  sweetness.  It  is  low  in 
its  habit  as  suits  a  pasture  for  sheep,  and  furnishes  good  feeding 
the  year  round.  Stock  that  have  fed  upon  it  without  any  help  from 
other  feed  have  been  found  in  spring  fat  and  in  condition  for  the 
butcher.  Meat  produced  upon  this  pasture  has  a  delicate  flavor, 
is  tender,  and  has  solid  fat.  Milk  from  cows  fed  upon  it  bears  a 
cream  of  the  richest  character  and  the  highest  color.  It  prof  ers  dry, 
light  soils,  which  are  the  very  best  soils  for  sheep  pastures,  and 
it  forces  its  roots  to  a  depth,  or  several  feet  beneath  the  surface, 
where  it  finds  moisture  even  upon  the  dry  plains  where  the  annual 
rain -fall  is  scarcely  equal  to  10  inches.  One  of  the  several  kinds 
called  "  Bunch-grass,"  (Festuca  scabrelld),  is  another  valuable  grass 
common  in  these  regions.  It  is  exceedingly  nutritive  and  cures 
on  the  stalk,  thus  affording  winter  pasture.  Other  species  of  Fes- 
tuca are  common,  "  Sheep' s-fescue  "  already  noted,  being  abun- 
dant. For  hay  for  winter  use  there  are  many  varieties  of  highly 
nutritious  grass.  Indian  or  Wood-grass,  (Sorghum  nutans),  is  four  to 
five  feet  in  hight,  and  is  full  of  a  rich,  sweet  juice,  which  is  very 
palatable  and  nutritious.  There  are  several  other  grasses  of  almost 


20 

equal  value  which  enable  the  flock-master  to  provide  abundant 
supplies  of  hay  to  carry  his  stock  over  those  short  periods  when 
pasturing  is  prevented  by  snow  storms.  The  variety  of  native 
grasses  suitable  for  sheep  pastures  is  thus  seen  to  be  ample,  and  no 
country  in  the  world  is  better  provided,  while  few  countries  are  so 
well  supplied  with  them,  as  are  the  United  States  and  territories 
over  the  whole  length  and  breadth  of  their  vast  surface. 

The  stocking  of  the  pasture  must  be  closely  looked  to.  Over- 
stocking causes  scarcity  of  pasture,  and  a  deficient  supply  of  nu- 
triment. It  also  causes  the  sheep  to  take  up  much  sand  and  earth 
into  their  stomachs  with  their  food,  which  gives  them  an  unthrifty 
appearance,  and  sometimes  induces  disease  and  death.  Sheep 
pastured  on  overstocked  fields  may  be  recognized  by  the  worn 
condition  of  their  teeth,  and  cases  have  occurred  in  which  this  test 
has  indicated  a  difference  of  two  years  in  their  age.  Four-year- 
old  sheep  have  exhibited  the  worn  mouths  of  six-year-olds.  Un- 
derstocking is  an  error  on  the  other  side.  Unless  the  pasture  is 
closely  cropped,  the  herbage  becomes  hard,  unpalatable,  and  indi- 
gestible, and  the  sheep  do  not  thrive  upon  it.  It  is  a  well  proved 
adage  that  "  24  hours'  grass  is  best  for  a  sheep,  and  8  days'  grass  for 
an  ox. "  This  indicates  that  the  close  bite  of  a  sheep  should  be 
accommodated  by  a  very  close  herbage.  Tne  tender  growth  of  a 
thick,  short  pasture  is  precisely  what  is  wanted,  and  if  the  flock  is 
not  numerous  enough  to  keep  it  short,  the  field  should  be  divided 
into  plots,  and  those  not  cropped  closely  should  be  pastured  down 
by  cattle  or  left  to  be  mowed.  For  the  better  stocking  of  the  pas- 
tures it  would  be  well,  if  practicable,  to  divide  the  flock,  sorting 
lambs  and  yearlings  from  wethers  and  aged  ewes,  and  putting  the 
former  upon  the  best  and  tenderest  pasture.  This  is  a  point  of 
great  importance  in  the  management  of  a  flock,  and  should  be 
clone  whenever  the  welfare  of  the  younger  or  less  vigorous  sheep 
requires  it.  Where  the  range  is  extensive,  and  ample  pasture  is 
provided,  any  supplementary  provision  further  than  an  occasional 
feed  of  corn,  oats,  bran,  or  oil-meal,  is  unnecessary.  These  addi- 
tional foods  should  be  supplied  whenever  the  condition  of  the  pas- 
ture requires  it,  and  constant  watchfulness  should  be  exercised  to 
discover  the  moment  when  the  pastures  fail.  It  is  not  that  the 
growth  of  the  sheep  is  arrested  then,  but  the  quality  of  the  wool 
suffers  from  the  moment  that  the  condition  of  the  sheep  begins  to 
deteriorate.  The  secretion  which  supplies  the  matter  of  which 
the  wool  is  formed,  is  then  lessened,  and  the  fiber  is  weakened  at 
that  particular  spot.  If  the  adverse  condition  continues  for  some 
days  or  weeks,  the  weakened  fiber  forms  what  is  called  a  "  break  " 


SUPPLY  OF  WATER.  21 

in  the  wool.  When  the  wool  comes  to  be  carded  or  combed,  the 
tension  overcomes  the  resistance  of  the  fiber  which  breaks  at  this 
weak  spot,  and  the  broken  fibers  go  to  waste.  "  Break  "  in  the 
wool  greatly  reduces  its  value,  and  as  it  is  wholly  caused  by  defi- 
cient nourishment  or  excessive  exposure,  it  is  a  loss  readily  avoided 
by  proper  care.  The  extra  supply  of  food  must  be  judiciously 
proportioned  to  the  needs  of  the  sheep,  as  over  supply  will  result 
in  an  equal  disadvantage  by  unduly  stimulating  the  condition  arid 
leading  to  a  reaction  when  the  stimulus  is  withdrawn.  Evenness 
in  the  fleece,  although  it  may  be  of  poor  quality,  is  better  than  un- 
evenness,  for  even  if  there  be  only  one  short  break  in  a  fiber 
otherwise  of  general  excellence,  the  whole  is  reduced  by  this  single 
break  to  one-half  Us  proper  length.  One  neglect  of  a  few  days 
duration  is  really  worse  for  the  fleece  than  comparatively  poor 
feeding,  if  it  is  only  adhered  to  with  regularity.  Poor  feeding  and 
general  care,  result  in  a  gradually  diminished  growth  and  weight 
of  fleece,  but  yet  may  not  affect  the  health,  while  irregular  feed- 
ing affects  the  health  and  ruins  the  flock  completely. 

The  supply  of  water  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  A  living 
spring  or  a  clear  flowing  stream  with  dry  gravelly  banks  is  the 
best  source  of  supply.  Wells  are  better  than  ponds  or  pools. 
Stagnant  water  is  exceedingly  objectionable.  Hard  water  is  better 
than  soft,  and  water  containing  much  saline  or  other  mineral 
matter,  is  a  valuable  help  to  the  pasture  as  furnishing  many  neces- 
sary substances.  When  water  is  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  it 
deposits  the  greater  part  of  any  mineral  matter  it  may  contain, 
and  becomes  soft.  It  is  then  rendered  of  less  value  for  stock  pur- 
poses. There  are  some  waters  that  contain  potash,  lime,  soda, 
magnesia,  iron,  and  sulphur  in  combination  with  oxygen,  carbonic 
acid,  and  chlorine  to  the  amount  of  15  to  20  grains  per  gallon,  and 
such  water  is  a  source  of  nourishment  to  sheep.  Pond  or  marsh 
water  is  highly  injurious,  as  is  also  running  water  in  which  aquatic 
plants  are  found.  It  is  from  drinking  such  water,  as  much  as  from 
pasturing  on  un drained  soils,  that  the  liver  flukes,  parasites  always 
accompanying  the  disease  termed  the  rot,  gain  access  to  the  stom- 
ach and  intestines  of  the  sheep.  A  deficiency  in  the  necessary 
mineral  matters  may  be  obviated  by  giving  the  sheep  stated  sup- 
plies of  a  mixture  of  common  salt,  sulphur,  saltpeter,  sulphate  of 
magnesia,  (epsom  salts),  phosphate  of  lime,  bone-dust,  or  fine  bone, 
with  a  small  portion  of  sulphate  of  iron,  (copperas).  A  small  tea- 
spoonful  of  this  mixture  given  once  a  week  to  each  sheep  will  help 
greatly  to  a  healthful  condition,  and  resist  the  tendency  to  disease 
caused  by  inferior  pasture  or  soft  water.  The  study  of  the  plants 


22  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

suitable  for  a  pasture,  the  character  of  soils,  and  the  water,  should 
be  part  of  the  education  of  every  shepherd. 

The  exposure  of  the  pasture  is  another  important  consideration. 
Long  continued  cold  winds  are  productive  of  great  discomfort  and 
sickness,  and  often  cause  serious  loss  amongst  the  flock.  On  the 
sea  coast,  exposure  to  the  moist  sea  breezes  injures  the  quality  of 
the  wool,  and  renders  it  harsh  and  deficient  in  quantity.  Of  two 
adjoining  flocks  upon  opposite  sides  of  a  hill  facing  north  and 
south,  the  sheep  exposed  to  the  north  winds  will  be  several  pounds 
less  in  weight,  and  their  wool  will  be  whiter,  harsher,  more  uneven, 
and  less  healthy  looking,  than  those  of  the  flock  upon  the  south  side. 
This  experience  is  very  common.  The  lambs  will  also  be  less 
thrifty.  Of  this,  many  notable  cases  occur  every  season  where 
sheep  and  lambs  are  pastured  and  fed  for  the  markets.  The  small 
size  of  sheep  raised  upon  mountain  pastures  is  a  case  in  point. 

Where  the  pasture  is  circumscribed  or  poor,  it  may  be  supple- 
mented by  sowed  green  crops  to  be  fed  on  the  ground,  or  cut  and 
fed  in  racks  upon  the  pasture,  or  cut  and  carried  to  yards  and  fed 
there  at  night  in  racks.  Of  these,  rye,  clover,  mustard,  rape,  tares, 
and  oats  and  peas  mixed,  furnish  an  abundant  supply.  Rye  is 
sown  early  in  the  fall  for  winter  and  early  spring  feeding.  For 
this  purpose  it  should  be  sown  thickly,  three  bushels  per  acre 
being  a  fair  allowance  upon  fairly  good  soil,  early  in  August  up 
to  the  middle  of  September.  The  sheep  may  be  turned  upon  the 
crop  in  December,  and  at  intervals  as  may  be  found  proper,  up  to 
April,  when  it  may  be  plowed  down  for  a  spring  crop.  Upon 
light  lands,  where  the  winters  admit  of  it,  as  in  some  of  the  middle 
and  southern  states,  this  may  be  made  an  excellent  means  of  im- 
proving the  soil ;  some  additional  feed,  as  bran,  pea-meal,  corn,  or 
cotton-seed-meal,  (freed  from  the  hull  which  is  indigestible  and 
injurious),  will  much  assist  in  this  improvement  of  the  soil  as  well 
as  in  bettering  the  condition  of  the  sheep. 

After  rye,  clover  sown  the  previous  spring,  but  not  pastured, 
will  come  in  turn.  This  will  furnish  pasture  through  the  summer 
if  kept  well  stocked  down,  and  a  choice  portion  should  be  fenced 
off  for  the  lambs.  By  changing  from  one  part  of  the  field  to  an- 
other, as  one  portion  is  eaten  down,  the  new  growth  will  be  tender 
and  fresh.  After  June  a  part  of  the  clover  will  run  to  seed,  and 
when  the  field  is  plowed  in  August  or  September,  the  seed  will 
help  to  re-sow  the  ground,  which  may  then  be  sown  to  wheat  or 
rye.  This  makes  an  excellent  preparation  for  these  crops  on  lands 
of  a  somewhat  light  character. 

White  Mustard,  (Sinapis  alba),  may  be  sown  in  May  or  June  for 


FODDER  CROPS.  23 

feeding  in  August  and  until  rye  is  ready.  It  is  difficult  to  eradi- 
cate from  the  soil  when  it  once  becomes  a  weed  and  has  been 
allowed  to  take  possession.  But  a  careful  farmer  will  have  no 
trouble  if  he  manages  the  crop  so  as  to  prevent  the  seed  being 
shed.  When  sown  in  August,  mustard  affords  valuable  feed  dur- 
ing the  winter,  and  although  the  ground  may  be  covered  with 
several  inches  of  snow,  the  sheep  will  scrape  off  the  covering  and 
get  at  it.  In  this  way  a  plot  of  mustard  may  furnish  a  green  bite 
all  the  winter  where  the  snow  fall  is  light.  In  the  spring  it  should 
be  plowed  down  early  and  not  allowed  to  blossom,  and  a  spring 
crop  taken  so  that  the  ground  is  plowed  again  in  the  fall.  Treated 
thus,  the  plant  cannot  ripen  and  shed  its  seeds  and  become  trouble- 
some. Mustard  has  a  pungent  flavor,  and  contains  a  large  propor- 
tion of  sulphur ;  it  is  on  this  account  a  healthful  fodder  for  sheep, 
and  is  very  much  relished  by  them.  It  belongs  to  the  botanical 
order  of  Cruciferce.to  which  the  cabbage, rape,  and  turnip,  belong; 
a  family  of  plants  rich  in  sulphur,  lime,  phosphoric  acid,  and  other 
mineral  matter  demanded  for  the  sustenance  of  sheep.  Two  pecks 
of  mustard  seed  per  acre  are  sown,  and  for  a  heavy  crop  of  fodder 
rich  soil  is  required. 

Rape,  a  variety  of  Brassica  campestris,  is  a  very  hardy  plant,  and 
produces  a  heavy  burden  of  fodder  which  is  readily  eaten  by  sheep. 
It  is  very  similar  in  habit  to  mustard,  and  should  be  fed  off  in  the 
fall  and  winter  or  early  in  spring.  Two  pecks  of  seed  are  required 
for  an  acre.  For  fall  feed  it  should  be  sown  in  July  or  early  in 
August.  Both  mustard  and  rape  succeed  very  well  in  the  north- 
ern, western,  and  middle  states,  and  would  thrive  equally  well  in 
most  of  the  southern  states  if  sown  somewhat  later  and  fed  off 
during  the  winter.  These  plants  when  sown  late  ripen  their  seed 
early  in  the  second  year. 

Turnips  are  a  very  frequent  fodder  crop  in  those  parts  of  Eng- 
land where  sheep  are  largely  raised,  but  the  practice  of  allowing 
them  to  be  fed  off  from  the  ground  is  fast  becoming  obsolete,  and 
the  plan  of  taking  up  the  crop  and  cutting  and  feeding  the  roots 
in  troughs  upon  the  fields  or  in  yards  is  substituted  in  its  place. 
But  the  English  climate  is  excessively  moist,  and  rain  falls  two 
days  out  of  three  on  the  average.  It  is  for  this  reason,  and  the  in- 
jurious effect  upon  the  sheep  of  the  exposure  upon  muddy  fields 
to  cold  wintry  rains,  that  the  practice  is  falling  into  disuse.  In 
parts  of  the  United  States  we  have  every  advantage  for  making 
use  of  so  cheap  and  convenient  a  plan  of  feeding  sheep  upon 
these  root  crops  that  are  not  injured  by  moderate  frosts.  Where 
the  fall  of  snow  is  light  and  soon  melts  away,  as  in  Virginia,  Ten- 


24  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

nessee,  Missouri,  and  the  states  south  of  these,  this  system  of  win- 
ter feeding  has  been  practiced  for  many  years  by  the  better  class 
of  farmers  with  success.  Mr.  C.  W.  Howard,  of  Georgia,  a 
highly  trustworthy  gentleman,  a  farmer  and  a  frequent  writer 
upon  agricultural  topics,  and  who  has  given  much  attention  to  the 
culture  of  fodder  crops,  communicated  some  time  ago  to  the  Rural 
Carolinian  the  following  directions  and  facts  in  regard  to  the  cul- 
ture of  turnips  for  sheep  feeding  in  the  open  field  in  the  south  : 
"  Take  a  field,  plow  it  deeply  with  a  two-horse  plow,  subsoil  if 
possible,  harrow  thoroughly  and  roll.  Lay  off  the  land  in  rows 
two-and-a-half  feet  apart,  with  a  wide  and  deep  furrow.  If  there 
be  not  stable  manure,  apply  three  to  five  hundred  pounds  of  Am- 
moniated  Superphosphate  of  Lime ;  the  addition  of  some  potash 
would  be  useful ;  throw  the  dirt  back  with  two  furrows,  and  level 
the  ridge  with  a  board.  Use  the  Weathersfield  drill,  or  some 
other,  costing  about  nine  dollars.  Sow  with  it  two  pounds  of  seed 
to  the  acre.  The  "Weathersfield  drill  opens  the  furrow,  drops  the 
seed,  covers,  and  then  rolls  it  by  one  and  the  same  process.  When 
the  plants  have  formed  the  third  leaf,  which  is  rough,  thin  them 
out  with  the  hoe  and  hand  to  about  eight  inches  apart,  give  them 
a  good  plowing  with  a  narrow  scooter,  and  the  cultivation  is 
completed.  The  cultivation  of  an  acre  of  turnips  will  cost  as 
follows : 

Plowing ..$  2  00 

Harrowing 50 

Boiling 50 

Seed..   100 

Sowing: 25 

Hoeing  and  Thinning 2  00 

Plowing 1  00 

Fertilizer 1000 

$17  25 

"  The  result  will  vary  according  to  the  soil,  the  season,  and  the 
cultivation.  Five  hundred  bushels  is  a  poor  crop.  One  thousand 
bushels  is  a  good  crop.  Fifteen  hundred  bushels  is  an  extraordi- 
nary crop.  This  number  of  bushels,  (1,550),  was  made  last  year 
by  Dr.  Lavender,  of  Pike  County,  Ga.  That  gentleman  took  the 
premium  at  the  last  Georgia  State  Fair.  His  statements  deserve 
implicit  reliance.  They  were  made  under  oath.  His  process  of 
obtaining  this  remarkable  yield  was  as  follows : 

"  *  The  soil  was  a  sandy  loam.  Turned  over  a  heavy  clover  sod 
in  June  with  a  Dixie  plow  ;  harrowed  twice  with  a  Nishwitz  har- 
row on  the  21st  of  August ;  ran  twice  in  the  furrow,  deposited  in 
the  bottom  of  the  furrow  3,600  pounds  of  stable  manure,  com- 


FOLDING  OK  TUBNIPS.  25 

pounded  with  100  pounds  of  the  Stono  Phosphate ;  let  it  stand  six 
weeks,  then  applied  as  above  stated.  Cultivated  with  a  cultivator 
by  horse  power — no  hoeing ;  left  about  six  plants  to  the  yard ; 
had  only  one  rain  on  them  after  plowing,  and  that  a  light  shower. 
Sowed  two  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  ;  planted  by  hand  through 
a  guano  bugle,  and  then  rolled.' 

"What  does  it  cost  to  raise  a' bushel  of  turnips?  If  we  make 
500  bushels  to  the  acre,  the  cost  will  be  about  four  cents  per 
bushel ;  if  1,000,  the  cost  will  be  about  two  cents  per  bushel.  This 
does  not  include  gathering,  storing,  and  marketing,  because  the 
use  that  it  is  proposed  to  make  of  the  turnips  involves  none  of  these 
expenses. 

"  What  use,  then,  is  to  be  made  of  the  crop  ?  Feed  them  off  on 
the  land  with  sheep,  the  process  ordinarily  known  as  folding. 
For  this  purpose  a  portable  fence  is  necessary.  (These  are  de- 
scribed hereafter). 

"  The  fold  should  not  include  more  turnips  than  the  sheep  will 
eat  off  clean  in  twenty-four,  or,  at  the  utmost,  forty-eight  hours. 
If  it  be  larger,  the  turnips  will  be  wasted.  Sheep  not  accustomed 
to  turnips,  may  at  first  refuse  to  eat  them.  But  let  them  get  quite 
hungry,  and  then  sprinkle  some  salt  upon  the  turnips.  After  they 
once  get  a  taste  of  them  the  only  difficulty  will  be  to  get  enough 
of  them.  One  thousand  sheep  will  consume  an  acre  of'  turnips  in 
twenty-four  hours ;  one  hundred  in  ten  days  and  nights.  With 
these  data,  the  size  of  the  pen  can  be  graduated.  One-tenth  of  an 
acre  should  be  the  size  of  the  fold  or  pen  per  one  hundred  sheep. 
One  acre  of  turnips  will  support  one  hundred  sheep  for  ten  days, 
three  acres  one  month,  nine  acres  three  months.  This  is  not  the- 
ory, but  the  result  of  actual  experiment.  The  enemy  of  the  turnip 
is  the  fly.  There  are  two  means  of  preventing  the  ravages  of  this 
troublesome  insect.  One  is  very  thick  seeding,  the  other  is  dust- 
ing the  young  plants  as  soon  as  they  are  above  ground,  with  un- 
leached  ashes,  or  air-slacked  lime.  After  they  reach  the  rough 
leaf  there  is  no  further  danger  from  this  source.  The  thinning 
should  take  place  as  soon  as  the  rough  leaf  is  formed.  If  this 
thinning  is  delayed,  the  crop  will  be  seriously  injured." 

For  the  northern  states  the  culture  of  the  turnip,  ruta-baga,  su- 
gar beet,  mangel,  and  cabbage,  is  as  follows:  the  preparation  of  the 
ground  being  alike  for  all,  the  time  of  sowing  alone  being  differ- 
ent. Sugar  beets  and  mangels  are  sown  from  April  to  June, 
the  early  sown  crop  being  invariably  the  heaviest.  Ruta-bagas  are 
sown  June  15th  to  July  1st.  Cabbage  for  late  crop  is  sown  in 
seed  beds  in  June  to  be  transplanted  in  July.  Yellow  Aberdeen 
2 


26 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


turnips  are  sown  in  July,  and  white  turnips  in  July  or  August. 
The  soil  is  prepared  by  previous  plowing  and  manuring,  and  made 
fine  and  mellow ;  the  seed  is  sown  in  drills  30  inches  apart,  and 
thinned  out  to  12  to  18  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  A  crop  of  roots 
grown  18  inches  apart,  each  root  weighing  6  Ibs. ,  will  yield  34  tons, 
or  1,100  bushels  to 
the  acre.  For  beets 
or  mangels,  4  Ibs. 
of  seed  per  acre  is 
required  if  sown 
with  a  drill ;  of 
ruta-bagas  and  tur- 
nips 2  Ibs.  of  seed  is 
sown.  The  best  beet 
is  Lane's  Improved 
Sugar  Beet ;  the 
best  mangel,  the 
Long  Red ;  the 
best  ruta-baga,  the 
Purple-top  Swede ;  the  Aberdeen  turnip  is  better  than  the  white, 
and  nearly  as  good  as  the  ruta-baga ;  the  white  turnip  has  the  ad- 


Fig.  1.— PIT  FOB  BOOTS. 


Fig.  2. — BOOT-CUTTEB. 

vantage  that  it  can  be  sown  late  and  follow  an  oat,  barley,  or  rye 
crop.    The  harvesting  is  done  by  cutting  off  the  tops  with  a  sharp 


FEEDING   ROOTS. 


ot 


hoe  and  plowing  a  furrow  on  one  side  of  the  row  of  roots,  when 
they  may  be  pulled  from  the  ground  with  the  hoe  or  by  drawing 
a  dull  harrow  over  the  field.  The  crop  is  saved  by  keeping  the 
roots  in  cellars  or  pits.  Pits  are  simply  conical  heaps  covered 
with  straw  and  earth  sufficient  to  keep  out  the  frost,  a  foot  of 
straw  and  a  few  inches  of  earth  being  sufficient  protection,  (see 
fig.  1).  Roots  should  be  sliced  or  pulped  when  fed,  as  they  are 
more  readily  eaten, 
and  there  is  no  dan- 
ger of  the  sheep 
choking  by  swallow- 
ing too  large  pieces. 
A  simple  cutting  ma- 
chine is  shown  in  fig. 
2.  It  consists  of  a 
wooden  wheel  fur- 
nished with  long 
knives  set  at  an  angle 
similar  to  the  irons 
in  a  plane,  which  cut 
the  roots  into  thin 
slices.  Fig.  3  is  a 
pulper  in  which,  in- 
stead of  knives,  there 
are  144  sharp  chisel  Fi£-  3.— BOOT  PULPER. 

points  made  of  quarter-inch  steel,  (see  a),  by  which  the  roots  are 
torn  into  shreds  and  reduced  to  pulp. 

When  crops  are  fed  upon  the  ground,  a  special  arrangement  of 
temporary  fences  is  used.  These  are  constructed  of  hurdles,  of 
which  there  are  several  kinds.  One  of  the  most  readily  con- 
structed hurdles  is  made  of  light  stakes  pointed  at  the  ends  and 
fastened  together  with  bars  of  split  or  sawed  saplings  or  laths,  such 
as  are  shown  at  fig.  4.  These  are  made  in  panels  about  nine  feet 
long,  with  stakes  five  and  a  half  feet  high.  A  line  of  these  hurdles 
is  set  across  the  field,  enclosing  a  plot  in  which  the  sheep  are  con- 
fined, until  the  crop  on  the  ground  is  consumed.  The  shepherd 
takes  a  light  pointed  iron  bar  with  which  he  makes  holes  in  the 
ground  to  receive  the  pointed  lower  ends  of  the  stakes,  and  drives 
them  down  firmly  by  striking  the  tops  with  a  wooden  mallet.  As 
the  crop  is  eaten,  the  line  of  hurdles  is  moved  along  the  field  until 
the  whole  is  consumed.  Much  economy  in  labor  of  setting  the 
hurdles  may  be  exercised  by  laying  out  the  plots  in  a  certain  man- 
ner. For  instance,  if  a  square  field  of  ten  acres  is  to  be  fed  off,  the 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


plan  shown  in  fig.  5  will  be  found  very  convenient.  The  distance 
across  the  field  is  220  yards.  This  is  the  least  length  of  hurdles 
that  can  be  used.  But  if  the  field  is  divided  off  into  strips  across, 
the  whole  of  the  hurdles  must  be  moved  each  time,  and  if  the  field 


Fig.  4. — HURDLE. 

is  divided  into  eight  strips,  there  will  be  seven  removals  of  every 
hurdle,  or  the  whole  length  of  netting.  In  the  plan  here  shown, 
only  half  this  work  is  necessary,  and  a  field  may  be  divided  into 
eight  sections  by  moving  half  the  hurdles  seven  times.  For  in- 
stance, plot  1  is  fed  by  placing  the  ^ 
hurdles  from  a  to  b,  and  from  c  to  d. 
Plot  number  2  is  fed  by  moving  the 
line  from  e,  d  to  b,  e.  The  next  setting 
of  the  hurdles  is  from  e  to/,  the  next 
from  b  to  g,  the  next  from  h  to  i,  the 
next  from  b  to  k,  the  next,  and  last, 
from  I  to  m.  There  will  be  eight 
settings  of  110  yards  each,  instead  of 
seven  of  220  yards  each,  which  would 
be  necessary  should  the  field  be  fed  off 
in  the  usual  manner  of  strips  across  it. 

In  place  of  these  hurdles,  netting  of  cocoa-nut  fiber  or  hempen 
cord  is  often  used.  This  is  supported  by  stakes  driven  into  the 
ground  and  hooks,  (see  fig.  6).  Netting  of  this  kind  is  made  in 


f.3      e 

1 

i 

f 

2 
f 

3 
$ 

6  i 

i 

7       TO 

*        8 

Fig.  5.— PLAN  FOB  SETTING 
HTTRDLES. 


PORTABLE-  FENCES. 


England  in  lengths  of  100  yards,  and  widths  of  4  feet,  at  about  $9 
the  100  yards.  At  this  price  it  could  be  imported  with  profit,  and 
probably  cheaper  than  it  could  be  manufactured  here.  Another 
form  of  hurdles  not  quite  so  portable,  but  more  easily  moved  and 
set  is  illustrated  at  fig.  7.  They  are  12  feet  long,  and  are  made  of 
a  stout  pole  bored  with  two  series  of  holes  12  inches  apart.  Stakes 
six  feet  long  are  put  into  these,  holes,  so  that  they  project  from 
them  three  feet  on  each  side  of  the  pole.  One  series  of  holes  is 
bored  in  a  direction 
at  right  angles  to 
that  of  the  other, 
and  when  the 
stakes  are  all  pro- 
perly placed,  they 
form  a  hurdle  the 
end  of  which  looks 
like  the  letter  X. 
The  engraving 
shows  how  these 
hurdles  are  made 
and  the  method  of 
using  them.  A  row 
is  placed  across 
the  field.  A  strip 
of  ten  feet  wide  is 
set  off  upon  which 
the  sheep  feed. 
They  eat  up  all  the 
herbage  upon  this 
strip  and  that  which  they  can  reach  by  putting  their  heads  through 
the  hurdles.  The  hurdles  are  then  turned  over,  exposing  another 
strip  of  forage.  When  this  is  fed  off  the  hurdles  are  again  turned 
over,  and  so  on.  The  chevaux-de-frise  presented  by  the  hurdles 
prevents  any  trespassing  upon  the  other  side  of  them,  and  by  using 
two  rows  the  sheep  are  kept  in  the  narrow  strip  between  them. 
Their  droppings  are  therefore  very  evenly  spread  over  the  field, 
and  it  is  very  richly  fertilized  by  them.  At  night  the  sheep 
are  taken  off,  and  when  the  field  has  been  fed  over,  they  are 
brought  back  again  to  the  starting  point  and  commence  once  more 
to  eat  their  way  along.  When  the  crop  is  cut  and  fed  to  the  sheep, 
a  somewhat  different  arrangement  is  made.  This  may  be  made  a 
valuable  means  of  improving  land.  A  badly  run-down  field  in- 
fested with  weeds,  may  be  cleared  of  rubbish,  fertilized,  and 


Fig.  6. — SHEEP  NETTING. 


30 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


PENNING  SHEEP  IN  THE   FIELD. 


31 


brought  into  grass  or  clover  by  judicious  management  in  this  way. 
Portions  of  such  a  field  may  be  set  off  with  hurdles  as  before  de- 
scribed, a  rough  shed  erected  in  which  the  sheep  may  be  secured 
at  night,  and  in  which  an  ample  supply  of  bedding  or  diy  earth,  or 
other  absorbent  is  placed  beneath  them,  and  here  the  crop  grown 
upon  another  part  of  the  farm,  aided  by  purchased  food,  if  such 
be  available,  is  fed  in  portable  troughs 
or  racks.  A  very  convenient  rack  is  the 
one  shown  in  fig.  8.  This  is  extremely 
portable,  and  may  be  moved  from  one 
part  of  the  field  to  another  with  great 
ease.  Where  sheep  are  permanently 
kept,  and  fixed  arrangements  are  made 
for  the  flock,  it  is  frequently  found  con- 
venient to  provide  a  permanent  and  safe 
shed,  in  a  central  position,  in  which  they 
may  be  confined  at  night,  and  from  which 
they  can  be  turned  into  different  fields  or 
portions  of  the  farm.  A  shed  that  has 
been  found  very  convenient  in  use  is 
shown  at  fig.  9.  It  is  built  at  the  center 
of  four  fields,  and  has  doors  opening  into 
each  of  them,  and  is  so  arranged  that  it 
may  be  entirely  closed  from  all  but  the 
one  which  may  be  in  use  at  the  time. 

For  the  protection  of  the  sheep  at 
night,  small  paddocks  may  be  fenced  in 
around  this  shed,  and  safety  from  dogs 
secured  by  the  use  of  dog  guards.  These 
consist  of  wires  made  to  run  above  the 
fence  or  at  right  angles  with  the  top  of 
it,  as  shown  at  figures  10  and  11. 

The  separation  of  the  flock  into  parts 
consisting  of  ewes  and  lambs,  weaned 
lambs  and  weaklings,  and  rams  and 
wethers,  is  very  necessary.  Ewes  and 
nursing  lambs  should  be  provided  with 
the  best  and  tenderest  pastures;  the  weaned  lambs  and  weak 
sheep  should  have  a  place  where  they  can  be  furnished  with  some 
extra  feed  without  interference  from  stronger  neighbors,  and 
rams  and  wethers  may  do  well  enough  on  the  coarser  herbage. 
A  frequent  change  of  pasture  is  very  advantageous  for  the  flock. 
Sheep  naturally  love  change,  and  after  they  have  wandered  over  a 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MAKITAL. 


field  will  become  restless,  and  try  to  escape.  The  best  method  of 
keeping  them  contented  and  quiet,  is  to  change  their  pasture  as 
soon  as  they  are  observed  to  wander  about  restlessly.  They  are 


Fig.  9,— SHEEP  SHED. 

then  losing  flesh.  To  restrict  sheep  to  one  kind  of  food  for  a 
period  of  more  than  thirty  days,  has  been  found  to  seriously  im- 
pair their  health.  "  Fresh  fields  and  pastures  new  "  are  therefore 
necessary  to  their  welfare,  and  their  health  cannot  be  maintained 


I.!  • 


Fig.  10.— DOG  GUARD. 


.  11.—  DOG  GUARD. 


unless  this  peculiarity  is  recognized  and  accommodated.    It  is 
better  to  divide  fields  into  paddocks  where  small  flocks  are  kept, 


EWES  AND  LAMBS.  33 

and  where  the  pastures  are  extensive,  to  reduce  the  size  and  in- 
crease  the  number  of  the  fields.  Where  the  pasture  is  an  open, 
unfenced  tract,  the  flock  should  be  driven  some  distance  to  a  new 
locality  every  month. 

The  attention  of  the  shepherd  during  the  summer  season  will  be 
constantly  exercised  in  seeing  that  every  portion  of  the  flock  re- 
ceives a  proper  share  of  the  pasture,  that  the  pasture  is  not  over- 
stocked ;  that  proper  shelter  is  provided  from  midday  heats ;  that 
failure  in  pasture  is  immediately  remedied  by  a  supply  of  fresh 
green  fodder  or  extra  food,  such  as  wheat-bran,  oil-cake-meal,  or 
corn-meal ;  that  pure  water  is  supplied  at  least  twice  a  day;  that 
a  certain  portion  of  salt,  or  a  mixture  of  salt  and  sulphur  is  pro- 
vided and  given  regularly  ;  that  on  the  first  symptom  of  indispo- 
sition, affected  sheep  are  removed  from  the  flock  to  some  place 
where  they  may  receive  proper  care  and  medicine;  that  the 
attacks  of  flies  are  warded  off  by  proper  preventives ;  that  para- 
sitic enemies  are  destroyed,  and  hi  short  hi  caring  in  every  possi- 
ble way  for  the  welfare  of  his  charge,  watching  closely  for  the 
most  minute  evidence  of  the  first  symptom  of  trouble  that  may 
occur,  always  remembering  that  "an  ounce  of  prevention  is 
worth  a  pound  of  cure."  To  this  end  he  should  study  closely  the 
habits  of  his  sheep  in  health,  make  himself  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  symptoms  of  disease  and  the  habits  and  methods  of  at- 
tacks of  those  living  enemies  which  trouble  the  flock,  and  be  pre- 
pared by  adequate  and  exact  knowledge  of  the  proper  preventives 
and  remedies,  to  apply  them  instantly,  correctly,  and  effectively. 


CHAPTEE    III. 
MANAGEMENT   OF   EWES   AND    LAMBS. 

In  the  management  of  sheep,  how  to  procure  the  most  profit 
from  the  flock  is  the  greatest  consideration.  It  is  not  exactly  how 
to  increase  the  flock  most  rapidly,  nor  to  produce  the  heaviest 
carcasses  or  fleeces,  but  to  produce  such  animals  as  will  return  the 
most  money  for  the  expenditure  and  labor  involved.  In  some  lo- 
calities the  sale  of  an  early  lamb  will  bring  in  more  money  than 
that  of  the  mother  with  its  fleece.  Where  there  is  a  market 
for  lambs,  it  is  evidently  the  most  profitable  to  keep  such  sheep, 


34 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


and  to  keep  them  in  such  a  way  as  will  produce  the  highest  priced 
lambs.  Where  mutton  is  the  most  profitable,  there  a  different 
management  must  be  adopted,  and  frequently  a  different  breed  of 
sheep  must  be  kept.  Where  wool  only  is  the  object,  still  another 
different  course  will  be  chosen.  Whichever  end  is  to  be  gained, 
the  care  of  the  breeding  ewes  and  the  lambs  will  be  a  subject  of 
much  solicitude.  But  what  would  be  a  proper  course  in  one  case 
•would  not  be  at  all  proper  in  another.  A  few  general  principles 
are  involved  in  the  management  of  ewes  and  lambs,  which  will 
first  be  explained,  after  which  the  special  management  proper  to 
be  adopted  for  each  special  case  will  be  considered. 

The  period  of  gestation  of  the  ewe  is  150  to  153  days.  Five 
months  in  round  numbers  may  be  taken  as  the  period  during 
which  the  ewe  carries  a  lamb.  The  coupling  of  the  ewes  and 
rams  should  be  so  timed,  that  the  lambs  may  be  dropped  at  the 
most  desirable  season.  It  will  be  found  a  great  convenience  to 
mark  the  ranis  and  ewes,  or  such  of  them  as  may  be  selected  to 
breed  stock  animals  from.  Where  a  small  flock  only  is  kept,  or 
where  special  care 
is  given  to  the  im- 
provement of  the 
breed,  every  sheep 
should  be  marked 
by  a  number,  that 
the  time  of  its  coup- 
ling may  be  noted, 
and  the  date  of  the 
expected  birth  of 
the  lamb  be  known.  The  best  method  of  marking  is  by  means  of 
metallic  ear  marks,  (fig.  12),  made  by  C.  H.  Dana,  of  West  Lebanon, 
N.  H.,  inserted  in  the  ear  in  different  ways,  to  distinguish  the  sexes 
easily.  The  method  of  keeping  these  records  may  be  as  fol- 
lows :  A  book  is  provided  which  is  ruled  with  six  columns.  At 
the  head  of  these  columns  are  written  the  number  of  the  ewe,  that 
of  the  ram,  the  date  of  service,  the  expected  time  of  the  lamb's  ap- 
pearance, the  date  when  it  is  actually  dropped,  and  any  remarks 
worthy  of  note.  The  following  diagram  exhibits  this  clearly : 


12. — METALLIC  EAR-MARKS. 


No.  of  Ewe.]No.  of  Bam. 
137  ~~4 


When  served, 


To  Lamb. 


Lambed.  \Remarks. 


Sept.   26,  '75  Feb.26,  '76  Feb.28,'76]    Twins. 
Under  the  head  of  remarks  should  be  written  anything  that  may 
be  desirable  to  remember  in  regard  to  the  character  of  the  produce 
of  the  animals  coupled.    A  ewe  that  produces  a  fine,  large,  active 


CAKE  OF  THE  RAM.  35 

lamb,  that  is  a  good  nurse,  and  that  rears  a  profitable  market 
lamb,  or  that  rears  twins  successfully,  is  a  valuable  animal  to  re- 
tain in  the  flock  so  long  as  she  remains  productive.  Such  ewes 
have  been  kept  until  10  or  12,  or  even  16  years  old,  and  to  be  able 
to  identify  a  ewe  of  this  kind  is  very  necessary  when  the  greatest 
profit  is  the  object  sought,  and  more  especially  in  those  cases  when 
the  special  business  is  to  rear  market  lambs  or  increase  the  flock 
rapidly.  No  more  than  30  ewes  should  be  apportioned  to  one 
ram  in  any  season,  unless  he  be  a  full  grown  one  and  in  vigorous 
health,  and  it  would  be  well  to  observe  the  rules  laid  down  in  a 
succeeding  chapter  especially  devoted  to  breeding,  for  the  man- 
agement of  the  ram  at  this  season.  If  the  ram  is  equal  to  the 
work,  50  ewes  may  be  given  to  him,  but  it  is  better  to  err  on  the 
safe  side  in  this  matter,  as  overwork  simply  means  barren  ewes 
and  loss  of  lambs.  At  the  breeding  season  the  ram  should  be 
smeared  upon  the  brisket  every  day  with  a  mixture  of  raw  linseed 
oil  and  red  ocher,  so  that  he  will  leave  a  mark  upon  each  ewe  that 
may  be  served.  As  the  ewes  are  served  they  are  to  be  drafted 
from  the  flock  and  placed  in  a  field  or  yard  by  themselves.  Two 
rams  should  not  be  kept  together  in  a  small  breeding  flock,  as 
quarreling  and  fighting  are  certain  to  result  and  great  damage 
may  occur.  If  two  rams  are  necessary,  each  may  be  used  on 
alternate  days.  Wethers  are  a  nuisance  in  a  flock  of  ewes  at  this 
season,  disturbing  them  and  keeping  them  and  themselves  from 
feeding.  A  plan  followed  with  advantage  where  the  flock  consists 
of  heavy  bodied  sheep,  and  where  the  necessary  attention  can  be 
given,  is  to  keep  the  ram  in  a  yard  or  paddock  by  himself,  out  of 
sight  of  the  ewes,  and  to  allow  a  wether  to  run  with  them.  As 
each  ewe  comes  in  season,  the  wether  singles  her  out  and  keeps 
company  with  her.  On  the  return  of  the  flock  from  the  pasture 
at  night,  the  ewe  or  ewes  in  season  are  turned  in  to  the  ram  until 
they  are  served,  when  they  may  be  removed  at  once,  or  left  with 
him  until  the  morning.  In  the  morning,  if  any  ewes  have  come 
into  heat  during  the  night,  they  may  be  served  before  the  flock  is 
turned  into  the  pasture.  This  is  continued  until  it  is  known  that 
'all  the  ewes  are  in  lamb.  By  this  method  a  ram  may  be  made  to 
serve  double  the  number  of  ewes  that  he  would  if  allowed  indis- 
criminate access  to  them,  and  exhaust  himself  in  useless  and  need- 
less repeated  exertions. 

As  soon  as  the  ewes  have  been  served,  the  time  of  each  is  entered 
in  the  record  as  previously  described.  They  are  carefully  pre- 
served from  all  worry  by  dogs  and  needless  driving  or  handling. 
Peace  and  quietness  at  this  season  will  tend  to  the  production  of 


36  THE  SHEPHEED9S  MANUAL. 

quiet  and  docile  lambs.  The  shepherd  should  make  himself  very 
familiar  with  them,  and  by  giving  salt  or  meal  in  the  hand,  or  a 
small  dish,  reduce  them  to  a  condition  of  perfect  docility.  Any 
ewes  that  have  either  refused  Ae  ram  or  have  failed  to  breed, 
should  be  dosed  with  two  ounces  of  epsom  salts  and  be  stinted  in 
their  feed  for  a  few  days  to  reduce  their  condition.  This  will 
generally  be  effective  in  bringing  them  into  season.  Good  fair 
condition  is  better  than  an  excess  of  fat,  but  ewes  in  poor  condi- 
tion cannot  be  expected  to  produce  other  than  poor,  weak  lambs  ; 
neither  will  an  excessively  fat  ewe  produce  a  strong  lamb.  Some 
extra  food  will  now  be  needed  by  the  ewes,  and  should  be  given 
at  first  in  small  quantities.  Bran,  crushed  malt,  and  crushed  oats 
and  corn  mixed,  are  the  best  kinds  of  food.  Oil-cake,  either  of 
cotton-seed  or  linseed,  unless  used  with  great  caution,  is  not  always 
a  healthful  food  for  ewes  in  lamb.  Any  food  that  actively  affects 
the  bowels,  either  way,  is  to  be  avoided.  Half  a  pint  a  day  may  be 
given  of  the  first  mentioned  foods,  and  a  change  from  one  to  an- 
other may  be  frequently  made.  So  long  as  pasture  is  to  be  had, 
this  allowance  will  be  sufficient.  When  the  winter  feeding  com- 
mences, the  ration  of  grain  should  be  gradually  increased  until,  at 
the  period  when  lambing  time  approaches,  a  pint  daily  is  given. 
Cold  watery  food  is  highly  dangerous  at  this  time,  and  roots 
should  not  be  given  in  large  quantities,  nor  at  all  unless  pulped 
and  mixed  with  cut  hay  and  the  grain.  Turnips  or  other  roots 
that  have  been  highly  manured  with  superphosphate  of  lime  has 
been  said  by  several  experienced  English  breeders  to  be  pro- 
ductive Of  abortion.  Water  should  be  given  in  small  and  frequent 
quantities.  It  is  best  to  have  running  water  or  water  from  a  well 
always  at  hand  for  the  ewes.  If  the  ewes  have  not  heretofore  been 
kept  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  flock,  they  should  now  be  sepa- 
rated. The  general  treatment  of  the  ewes  up  to  this  time  should 
be  such  as  will  keep  them  free  from  all  excitement,  and  in  good, 
healthful  condition.  The  record  should  now  be  consulted,  and  as 
the  ewes  near  their  time  they  should  be  removed  into  a  part  of  the 
stables  or  sheep  barn,  where  each  one  can  have  a  small  pen  to 
herself.  These  pens  should  be  made  so  that  light  can  be  shut  out 
if  desired.  Here  they  are  permitted  to  drop  their  lambs  in  perfect 
quiet ;  by  this  means  few  ewes  will  disown  their  lambs,  and  no 
lambs  will  be  lost  by  creeping  into  feed  racks  or  out  of  the  way 
places.  The  pens  should  not  be  larger  than  5x4  feet.  As  soon 
as  the  lamb  is  dropped  and  the  ewe  has  owned  and  licked  it,  and 
the  lamb  has  once  sucked,  all  danger,  except  from  gross  careless- 
ness, is  passed.  The  ewe  will  be  greatly  helped  by  a  drink  of 


CARE  OF  THE  EWK 


slightly  warm,  thin  oat-meal  gruel  well  salted.  The  lamb  will  be 
benefited  by  a  teaspoonfui  of  castor  oil,  given  in  new  rnilk,  if  the 
first  evacuations  do  not  pass  away  freely.  These  are  apt  to  be 
very  glutinous  and  sticky,  and  by  adhering  to  the  wool  to  close 
the  bowel  completely  unless  removed.  Warm  water  should  be 
used  to  soften  and  remove  these  accumulations.  The  anus  and 
surrounding  wool  should  then  be  smeared  with  pure  castor  oil. 
If  the  lamb  is  not  sufficiently  strong  to  reach  the  teats  and  suck,  it 
should  be  assisted  once  or  twice.  Any  locks  of  wool  upon  the 
ewe's  udder,  that  may  be  in  the  way,  should  be  clipped.  If  the 
lamb  is  scoured,  a 
teaspoonfui  of  a 
mixture  of  one 
pint  of  peppermint 
water  and  one 
ounce  of  prepared 
chalk  should  be 
given  every  three 
hours,  until  it  is 
relieved.  When 
the  ewe  refuses  to 
own  the  lamb,  she 
may  be  confined 
between  two  small 
hurdles,  as  shown 
in  fig.  13.  Two 
light  stakes  are 
driven  in  the 
ground  close  to- 
gether to  confine 
the  ewe's  head  and  keep  her  from  butting  the  lamb.  If  she  is 
disposed  to  lie  down,  as  some  obstinate  ones  will  do,  a  light  pole 
is  passed  through  the  hurdles  resting  upon  the  lower  bar  beneath 
her  belly.  Thus  confined  during  the  day,  she  is  helpless,  and  if 
the  lamb  is  lively,  it  will  manage  to  get  its  supply  of  food.  The 
ewe  should  be  released  at  night.  One  day's  confinement  is  often 
sufficient  to  bring  an  obstinate  ewe  to  reason. 

A  twin  lamb,  or  one  deprived  of  its  dam,  that  may  need  to  be 
reared  by  hand,  may  easily  be  fed  upon  cows'  milk.  A  fresh 
cow's  milk  is  the  best  fitted  for  this  purpose.  Ewe's  milk  is  richer 
in  solid  matter  than  that  of  the  cow,  and  the  addition  of  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  white  refined  sugar  to  the  pint  of  cow's  milk  will 
make  it  more  palatable  to  the  lamb.  At  first  not  more  than  a 


Fig.  13.— HURDLES  FOR  EWE. 


38 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MAHUAL. 


quarter  of  a  pint  of  milk  should  be  given  at  once.  The  milk  should 
be  freshly  drawn  from  the  cow,  and  warmed  up  to  100  degrees 
before  it  is  fed.  A  convenient  method  of  feeding  milk  to  a  lamb 
is  to  use  a  small  tin  can  with  a  long  spout,  such  as  is  used  for  oil. 
An  air-hole  is  punched  in  the  cover  or  cork  and  a  piece  of  sponge 
covered  with  a  cloth  is  tied  upon  the  end  of  the  spout.  The  flow 
is  thus  made  easy  and  equal,  and  the  lamb  sucks  in  a  natural  man- 
ner. The  accompanying  illustration,  (fig.  14),  shows  the  method. 
A  very  short  time  is  sufficient  to  familiarize  the  lamb  with  this 
kind  of  foster  mother.  To  encourage  the  flow  of  milk  in  the  ewe 


Fig.  14. — FEEDING  LAMBS. 

and  the  corresponding  growth  of  the  lambs,  the  food  of  the  ewes 
should  be  of  the  best  character.  Clover  hay,  bran,  and  crushed 
oats,  with  some  pea-meal,  are  the  most  preferable  foods,  produc- 
ing a  rich  milk  in  abundance.  The  ewes  must  not  be  allowed  to 
fall  off  in  condition,  or  the  lambs  will  fail.  During  mild  weather, 
sugar  beets  may  be  given  in  moderate  quantity  with  advantage, 
but  mangels  or  Swede  turnips,  (ruta-bagas),  should  be  avoided  as 
too  watery  and  deficient  in  nutriment,  and  productive  of  scours  in 
the  lamb.  In  cold  weather  roots  are  apt  to  reduce  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  animal  too  suddenly  if  given  in  any  but  small  quanti- 
ties, and  consequently  decrease  the  flow  of  milk.  Pea  straw  is  a 
favorite  and  nutritious  food  for  sheep,  but  it  will  be  found  profit- 


DOCKING  AND  CASTRATING  LAMBS.  39 

able  to  give  only  the  very  best  at  hand  to  nursing  ewes.  The 
after  growth  and  condition  of  the  lambs  will  greatly  depend  upon 
the  maintenance  of  a  thrifty  and  continuous  growth  during  the 
first  three  months  of  their  existence. 

At  the  age  of  a  week  the  operations  of  docking  and  castrating 
the  male  lambs,  may  be  safely  performed.  At  this  age  the  young 
animal  suffers  but  little,  there  is  no  loss  of  blood,  and  the  wounds 
heal  by  the  first  intention.  The  rough  and  ready  method  of  clip- 
ping off  the  tail  an  inch  from  the  rump,  first  drawing  the  skin 
upwards,  and  of  clipping  off  the  scrotum  and  testicles  altogether 
with  a  pair  of  sharp  sheep-shears,  will  be  found  perfectly  safe  if 
done  before  the  lamb  is  two  weeks  old.  The  nerves  being  very 
slightly  sensitive  at  this  time,  the  painful,  and  when  later  per- 
formed, dangerous  operation  of  emasculation  is  only  slightly  felt, 
and  within  an  hour  a  lamb  bereft  of  tail  and  generative  organs 
will  frequently  be  seen  skipping  playfully  in  the  sunshine.  To 
dock  an  older  lamb  is  a  more  troublesome  operation.  To  do  this 
with  facility,  a  block  of  wood  about  a  foot  high,  a  sharp,  broad 
chisel,  and  a  wooden  mallet,  are  required.  The  operator  stoops 
with  bended  knees,  the  block  being  in  front  of  him,  takes  the  lamb 
with  its  head  between  his  knees  and  its  tail  in  his  left  hand,  hold- 
ing the  chisel  in  his  right  hand.  Backing  the  lamb's  rump  up 
close  to  the  block,  he  lays  the  tail  upon  it,  and  drawing  back 
the  skin  of  the  tail  up  to  the  rump,  holds  the  chisel  lightly 
upon  the  tail  close  to  and  below  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand. 
When  all  is  ready  he  directs  an  assistant  to  strike  the  chisel 
smartly  with  the  mallet,  by  which  the  tail  is  instantly  severed 
about  two  inches  from  the  root.  A  pinch  of  powdered  bluestone 
(sulphate  of  copper),  is  placed  on  the  wound,  and  the  lamb  is  re- 
leased. To  castrate  an  old  lamb  with  safety,  the  scrotum  should 
be  opened  by  a  long  free  incision  with  a  sharp  knife  at  the  lower 
point,  the  animal  being  at  the  tune  turned  upon  its  back  and 
secured  in  that  position.  The  scrotum  should  be  held  in  the 
hand  tightly  enough  to  keep  the  skin  tense.  The  cut  should  be 
made  only  through  the  skin  and  coats  of  the  testicle,  and  not  into 
the  gland,  by  which  a  great  deal  of  pain  is  spared  to  the  animal. 
The  gland  will  escape  from  the  scrotum  at  once  if  the  opening  is 
made  large  enough.  It  may  be  taken  in  the  left  hand  and  the  cord 
and  vessels  scraped  apart,  not  cut,  by  which  bleeding  is  prevented 
and  healing  made  m ore  certain  and  rapid".  The  opening  being  made 
at  the  bottom  of  the  scrotum,  allows  the  blood  and  any  pus  that 
forms  hi  the  wound;to  escape  freely.  It  might  probably  be  bene- 
ficial to  insert  a  small  plug  of  tow  in  the  wound,  projecting  out  of 


40  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

it  a  short  distance  to  prevent  the  edges  from  healing  until  the  in- 
flammation has  subsided.  This  method  of  operation  is  a  safe  one, 
and  if  it  is  neatly  done,  the  losses  need  not  be  one  per  cent,  while 
frequently  three  lambs  out  of  five  may  be  lost  by  any  other 
method. 

While  the  lambs  are  still  with  the  ewes,  and  although  the  ewes 
may  be  well  fed  with  a  special  view  to  the  thrif tiness  of  the  lambs, 
yet  a  supply  of  additional  food  for  the  latter  will  be  of  great  ad- 
vantage to  them.  To  furnish  a  young  animal  with  all  the  food 
that  it  can  digest,  and  that  of  the  choicest  character,  is  to  create  a 
sturdy,  thrifty,  strong  constitutioned  animal  that  will  be  prolific 
in  reproduction  and  long  lived.  To  advance  the  maturity  of 
an  animal  is  also  to  lengthen  its  life,  for  it  matters  not  at  which 
part  of  its  productive  career  we  add  a  year,  it  certainly,  so  far  as 
profit  is  concerned,  lives  a  year  longer  for  us.  If  a  yearling  ewe 
can  be  made  to  produce  a  healthful,  strong  lamb,  or  a  lamb  can  be 
brought  by  care  to  maturity  for  the  market  at  eighteen  months  in- 
stead of  thirty  months,  this  result  is  simply  equal  to  a  profit  of  40 
per  cent.  And  feed  is  the  agent  by  which  this  profit  is  secured,  of 
course  made  available  by  proper  care  in  selecting  the  breeding 
stock.  To  provide  the  means  whereby  the  lambs  may  procure  the 
extra  feed  needed  for  their  rapid  development,  many  contrivances 
have  been  brought  into  use.  Generally  these  are  modifications  of 
the  plan  of  providing  a  pen  or  yard  adjoining  that  in  which  the 
ewes  are  kept,  with  "  creep  holes  "  in  the  fence  through  which  the 
lambs  can  gain  access  to  it.  In  this  yard  some  feed,  consisting  of 
oats,  rye,  and  wheat  bran  ground  together  very  finely,  is  placed  in 
troughs  or  boxes,  and  lightly  salted.  They  will  soon  find  this,  and 
will  resort  to  it  several  times  a  day.  A  very  simple  and  conve- 
nient "  lamb  creep  "  is  figured  at  fig.  15,  and  has  been  illustrated 
and  described  in  an  English  journal,  the  Agricultural  Gazette.  It 
is  very  frequently  used  by  English  farmers,  and  is  worthy  of  being 
adopted  by  us.  It  consists  of  a  small  double  gate  or  two  half  gates 
set  at  such  a  distance  apart  that  the  lamb  can  easily  force  itself 
through  between  them.  An  upright  roller  on  each  side  of  the 
opening  assists  the  lamb  hi  getting  through  the  space,  and  prevents 
it  from  rubbing  or  tearing  its  wool.  The  gates  are  pivoted  at  top 
and  bottom,  so  that  they  will  open  a  little  either  way ;  a  wooden 
spring  being  fixed  so  as  to  keep  them  closed  after  the  lamb  has 
passed  in  or  out.  The  lambs  pass  in  or  out  at  will.  Creeps  of 
this  kind  can  be  made  so  as  to  occupy  a  panel  of  fence  or  a  gate- 
way, and  of  a  portable  character,  so  that  they  can  be  easily  fixed 
to  the  fence-post  on  each  side  by  a  wire  or  withe,  and  removed 


WEANING  LAMBS. 


41 


when  no  longer  needed.  But,  by  whatever  means  it  maybe  done, 
the  lambs  should  be  supplied  with  some  additional  concentrated 
and  nutritious  feed.  As  a  gentle  laxative  in  case  of  constipation, 
a  few  ounces  of  linseed  oil-cake-meal  will  be  found  sufficient,  and 
far  better  than  physic.  Linseed  oil,  (raw),  or  castor  oil,  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  either  at  a  dose,  will  be  found  safe  and  effective  for 
either  constipation  or  diarrhea,  unless  of  a  serious  character. 
As  lambs  progress  towards  the  period  for  weaning,  the  extra 


Kg.  15. — LAMB  CBEEP. 

food  should  be  gradually  increased,  unless  they  can  be  removed 
to  a  good  pasture  of  short,  tender  grass.  In  this  case  even  a  small 
allowance  at  night  on  their  return  to  the  fold  will  be  beneficial. 
The  weaning  should  be  very  gradually  done.  The  sudden  remov- 
al of  the  lambs  from  their  dams  is  injurious  to  both.  It  too  ab- 
ruptly deprives  the  -lambs  of  their  most  easily  digested  and  most 
agreeable  food.  It  forces  them  to  load  the  stomach  with  food  for 
which  it  is  hardly  yet  prepared,  and  suddenly  arrests  their  growth 


4:2  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

both  by  a  stinting  of  food  and  by  the  nervous  irritation  conse- 
quent upon  their  sudden  deprivation.  The  dams  in  full  flow  of 
milk,  thus  at  once  deprived  of  the  means  of  relief,  are  subjected 
to  the  engorgement  of  the  udder,  with  the  consequent  congestion 
of  all  the  organs  connected  therewith.  This  shock  is  very  injuri- 
ous, and  frequently  produces  inflammatory  disorders  of  the  blood 
or  garget.  To  avoid  these  ill  effects  of  the  sudden  change,  it  is 
well  to  remove  the  lambs  to  a  distant  pasture,  along  with  some 
dry  ewes  or  wethers  for  company.  The  novel  experience  of  a 
fresh  pasture  will  cause  them  to  forget  then-  dams,  and  they  will 
utter  no  complaints  nor  manifest  any  uneasiness.  At  night  they 
should  be  turned  into  the  fold  with  the  ewes,  whose  full  udders 
they  will  speedily  relieve.  By  withdrawing  any  extra  feed  hith- 
erto given  to  the  ewes,  somewhat  gradually,  (in  no  case  is  it  wise 
to  make  a  sudden  change  in  the  management  of  sheep),  their  sup- 
ply of  milk  will  gradually  decrease,  and  in  two  weeks  the  whole  of 
the  lambs  may  be  weaned  with  perfect  safety  to  themselves  and 
the  ewes. 

After  having  been  weaned,  the  lambs  should  have  the  first 
choice  of  pasture  and  the  best  and  tenderest  cuttings  of  the  fodder 
crops.  Many  farmers  have  found  it  advantageous  in  every  way 
to  turn  newly  weaned  lambs  into  a  field  of  corn  in  the  month  of 
August.  The  corn  is  too  far  grown  to  be  injured,  the  suckers 
only  will  be  nibbled  by  the  lambs,  and  the  weeds  which  grow  up 
after  the  corn  is  laid  by,  will  be  eaten  closely.  The  lambs  also 
have  the  benefit  of  a  cool  shade,  and  where  such  a  field  can  be 
conveniently  applied  to  this  purpose,  there  are  several  reasons 
why  it  might  well  be  done. 

The  condition  of  the  ewes  must  not  be  neglected  at  this  time. 
The  chief  danger  is  in  regard  to  those  that  are  heavy  milkers. 
Such  sheep  should  be  closely  watched,  and  the  milk  drawn  by 
hand  from  those  whose  udders  are  not  emptied  by  the  lambs. 
The  first  approach  to  hardness  or  heat  in  the  udder  should  be 
remedied  by  an  immediate  dose  of  an  ounce  of  epsom  salts  dis- 
solved in  water,  and  mixed  with  a  teaspoonful  of  ground  ginger. 
The  next  two  days  20  grams  of  saltpeter  should  be  given  each 
morning  and  evening,  to  increase  the  action  of  the  kidneys.  These 
remedies  will  generally  relieve  the  udder,  and  will  tend  to  greatly 
reduce  the  secretion  of  milk.  If  hay  is  given  in  place  of  grass, 
and  the  ewe  confined  in  a  cool  darkened  pen,  the  drying  up  of  the 
milk  will  be  hastened. 

As  the  improvement  of  the  flock  can  be  better  made  from  within 
than  by  giving  the  sole  attention  to  bringing  new  blood  from 


SELECTION   OF  LAMBS  FOB  BREEDING.  43 

without,  it  will  be  very  important  to  select  the  best  lambs,  both  of 
rams  and  ewes,  for  breeders.  The  selection  should  be  made 
chiefly  in  reference  to  the  purposes  for  which  the  flock  is  kept, 
and  strength  of  constitution,  rapidity  of  growth,  size,  tendency  to 
fat ;  fineness,  length  or  quality  of  wool,  and  prolificness  and  cer- 
tainty of  breeding,  in  the  parents  as  well  as,  so  far  as  can  be 
judged  of,  in  the  lambs  themselves,  should  be  made  the  tests  by 
which  the  selection  is  determined.  If  the  production  of  early 
lambs  for  market  is  the  object,  the  produce  of  those  ewes  which 
bring  single  lambs  of  large  size  and  quick  growth  will  be  chosen 
to  increase  the  flock ;  if  the  production  of  mutton  sheep,  then  those 
lambs  from  ewes  which  drop  twins,  and  are  good  nurses,  ought  to 
be  kept ;  and  if  wool  of  any  particular  kind  is  desired,  then  the 
selection  should  be  made  chiefly  in  reference  to  that.  On  no  ac- 
count should  weakly  lambs,  or  those  ewes  which  are  poor  nurses, 
or  fail  to  breed,  or  which  exhibit  tenderness  of  constitution,  or  are 
wanderers,  or  of  uneasy,  restless  dispositions,  be  retained ;  but 
such  unprofitable  animals  should  be  closely  weeded  out  and  fat- 
tened for  sale  or  for  slaughter.  The  choice  of  ram  lambs  is  of 
chief  importance,  for  the  influence  of  the  ram  runs  through  the 
flock,  while  that  of  the  ewe  is  confined  to  her  produce  alone.  To 
select  a  lamb  for  a  stock  ram  is  a  matter  requiring  a  knowledge  of 
the  principles  of  breeding,  and  some  tact  and  experience.  The  lat- 
ter qualifications  cannot  be  acquired  from  books,  but  must  be 
gained  by  practice  ;  nevertheless,  much  as  to  the  selection  of  lambs 
may  be  learned  from  a  careful  consideration  of  what  will  be  found 
in  the  succeeding  chapter,  which  is  specially  devoted  in  part  to 
this  important  branch  of  the  shepherd's  knowledge. 

The  proper  age  for  breeding  differs  with  the  class  of  sheep  bred. 
The  Merino  is  not  mature  enough  for  breeding  until  fully  two  or 
three  years  old.  Other  breeds  which  mature  more  quickly  are 
ripe  for  breeding  as  yearlings,  but  there  is  nothing  gained  by  suf- 
fering any  sheep  less  than  a  year  old  to  reproduce.  A  young  ram 
in  its  second  year  may  be  allowed  to  serve  a  few  ewes,  if  he  is 
vigorous  and  well  grown.  A  ram  at  two  years  may  serve  30  ewes 
in  a  season,  and  after  that  from  50  to  60  or  70,  according  to  the 
manner  hi  which  he  is  kept,  and  if  he  is  restricted  to  no  more  than 
one  or  two  services  of  each  ewe.  The  strength  and  vigor  of  the 
lamb  certainly  depends  on  that  of  the  ram  by  which  it  is  sired,  as 
well  as  on  the  condition  and  character  of  the  ewe.  Ewe  lambs  of 
less  than  a  year  old.  should  be  kept  in  a  separate  flock  by  them- 
selves where  they  may  not  be  disturbed  by  the  rams.  The  second 
year  they  are  capable  of  breeding,  and  if  they  have  been  well 


44  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

cared  for,  will  produce  as  large  lambs  and  as  many  twins  as  older 
sheep.  The  young  ewes  having  their  first  lambs  are  apt  to  be  ner- 
vous, and  need  careful  attention  at  yeaning  time ;  it  is  then  that 
the  great  convenience  resulting  from  having  a  docile  and  friendly 
flock,  well  acquainted  with,  and  confiding  in,  their  shepherd,  is 
manifest.  The  young  ewes  should  not  be  put  to  the  ram  until  the 
older  ones  are  served,  so  that  they  will  not  drop  their  lambs  until 
the  spring  is  well  advanced,  and  the  pressure  upon  the  shepherd 
becomes  lighter.  As  a  rule  they  are  poor  nurses,  and  if  the  season 
is  cold,  will  lose  many  lambs.  If  they  are  not  allowed  to  have 
lambs  until  April  or  May,  so  much  the  better ;  it  will  then  be  neces- 
sary to  keep  them  from  the  ram  until  November  and  December. 
Difficulty  in  parturition  is  sometimes  experienced  with  young  ewes, 
and  assistance  is  often  needed.  This  should  be  given  with  the 
utmost  gentleness  and  tenderness.  When  the  presentation  is  all 
right  and  natural,  and  the  fore  feet  appear,  but  difficulty  occurs  in 
ejecting  the  head,  a  very  slight  and  slow  drawing  upon  the  feet 
may  help  the  ewe  in  expelling  the  lamb.  Sometimes  in  her  ner- 
vous struggles  the  head  may  be  turned  backwards,  and  does  not 
appear  when  the  fore  legs  have  protruded.  In  this  case  the  lamb 
should  be  gently  forced  backwards,  and  the  hand  or  fingers,  well 
oiled  with  linseed  oil,  and  the  finger  nails  being  closely  pared,  are 
inserted,  and  the  head  gently  brought  into  position,  when  it  will 
be  expelled  without  further  trouble.  For  more  difficult  and  ab- 
normal presentations,  the  services  of  an  experienced  shepherd  will 
be  needed,  but  such  cases  are  very  rare,  and  will  very  seldom  oc- 
cur if  the  flock  has  been  carefully  attended  to,  and  has  not  been 
overdriven,  or  worried  by  dogs,  or  knocked  about  by  horned  cattle. 
When  a  ewe  loses  her  lamb  it  is  best  to  make  her  adopt  one  of 
another  ewe's  twins.  This  may  be  done  by  rubbing  the  skin  of 
the  live  lamb  with  the  dead  one,  removing  the  dead  one  and  shut- 
ting up  the  ewe  and  live  lamb  together  in  a  dark  pen.  When  a 
lamb  loses  her  dam,  it  may  be  given  to  a  ewe  that  has  lost  her 
lamb,  or  from  which  her  lamb  has  been  taken,  or  with  care  it  may 
be  brought  up  by  hand  without  difficulty.  In  every  considerable 
flock  it  will  pay  to  have  a  fresh  cow  on  hand  at  the  lambing  sea- 
son, to  fill  the  place  of  foster  mother  to  disowned  or  abandoned 
lambs,  or  to  assist  those  whose  dams  for  any  reason  are  short  of 
milk. 

The  question  as  to  when  a  lamb  becomes  a  sheep,  although  of 
no  practical  utility,  has  sometimes  been  of  sufficient  importance 
to  require  a  decisive  reply.  A  legal  decision  was  given  in  an 
English  court  not  long  since,  which  is  probably  as  reasonable  as 


PKEVENTION  OF  DISEASE.  45 

we  may  expect,  and  may  be  accepted  as  being  authoritative.  The 
question  arose  out  of  the  killing  of  some  sheep  on  a  railroad  by  a 
passing  train,  and  it  was  denied  that  the  complaint  was  properly 
made,  the  animals  being  lambs,  and  not  sheep.  The  judge  decided 
that  lambs  ceased  to  be  lambs,  and  became  sheep  as  soon  as  they 
had  acquired  their  first  pair  of  permanent  teeth.  This  change  of 
teeth  generally  occurs  when  the  lamb  is  a  year  old.  At  this  period 
the  middle  pair  of  the  first  teeth  drop  out,  and  a  pair  of  the  per- 
manent incisors  appear.  At  one  year  and  nine  months,  two  more 
of  the  first  teeth  are  dropped  and  two  more  permanent  incisors, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  former  pair,  appear.  Nine  months  later, 
two  more  permanent  incisors  appear  in  a  similar  manner,  and  nine 
months  later  still,  another  pair  are  produced,  so  that  at  three  years 
and  a  quarter  the  sheep  has  eight  permanent  incisors  or  nippers, 
and  is  then  called  a  full-mouthed  or  perfect  sheep.  These  periods 
of  dentition  are  irregular,  and  in  some  of  the  early  maturing 
breeds,  the  first  pair  of  permanent  teeth  will  appear  before  the 
end  of  the  first  year,  and  at  16  months,  four  permanent  incisors 
may  be  found.  The  earlier  maturity  of  the  high  bred  and  high 
fed  races  of  sheep,  such  as  the  Leicester,  Cotswold  and  Shrop- 
shire, sometimes  amounts  to  a  gain  over  the  common  breeds  of 
nearly  a  year  in  time,  and  full-mouthed  sheep  of  no  more  than  two 
years  and  a  half  old  are  not  uncommonly  met  with. 

The  diseases  to  which  lambs  are  subject  are  but  few,  and  those 
are  mainly  the  result  of  carelessness  in  their  management.  The 
lamb,  which  appears  so  delicate  and  tender  an  animal,  is  really 
hardy,  and  resists  much  ill  treatment,  else  with  so  little  consider- 
ation as  they  usually  receive,  the  race  would  soon  become  almost 
extinct.  Damp  and  cold  are  especially  to  be  guarded  against  in 
the  spring,  and  filthy  yards  at  all  seasons.  With  clean  pens  and 
dry,  clean  bedding,  they  will  resist  the  severe  dry  colds  of  a  north- 
ern January,  and  thrive  and  grow  while  snow  storms  rage,  if 
only  well  sheltered.  Sunshine  has  a  remarkable  effect  upon 
lambs,  and  the  warmth  of  the  sun  will  often  revive  and  strengthen 
a  weak  lamb  that  appears  past  relief.  Extremes  of  damp  and  im- 
pure air  in  close  pens,  and  bad  drinking  water,  will  produce  diar- 
rhea and  paralysis,  and  these  are  the  chiefly  fatal  disorders  to 
which  they  are  subject.  Constipation  is  produced  by  want  of 
proper  laxative  food,  and  permitting  them  to  feed  on  dry,  withered 
herbage  that  has  lost  its  nutritive  qualities  beneath  the  storms  of  a 
winter.  If  the  directions  as  to  their  treatment  heretofore  given, 
are  followed,  there  will  rarely  be  any  need  of  remedial  measures, 
and  prevention  will  be  found  better  than  any  amount  of  cure.  If, 


46  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

notwithstanding  all  possible  care,  some  weakly  lambs  are  found 
to  require  treatment,  the  simple  purgatives  already  mentioned  in 
this  chapter,  viz :  a  teaspoonful  of  castor  or  raw  linseed  oil  will  be 
found  effective,  after  two  or  three  doses,  in  removing  the  trouble- 
some matter  from  their  intestines,  and  restoring  the  bowels  to 
healthful  action.  If  in  any  case,  a  stimulant  seems  to  be  needed, 
as  when  great  weakness  and  prostration  are  present,  the  safest  is  a 
teaspoonful  of  gin,  given  in  a  little  warm  water  with  sugar.  A 
still  more  gentle  stimulant  and  anodyne,  but  one  very  effective  in 
prolonged  diarrhea,  is  prepared  by  adding  to  a  pint  of  peppermint 
water,  one  ounce  of  prepared  chalk,  a  teaspoonful  each  of  tinc- 
ture of  opium  and  of  tincture  of  rhubarb ;  it  is  worthy  of  the 
name  given  to  it  by  shepherds,  viz :  "  lambs  cordial,"  and  at  the 
lambing  season  no  shepherd  should  be  without  a  supply  of  it. 
The  dose  is  a  teaspoonful  for  a  lamb  of  a  few  days  old,  up  to  a 
tablespoonful  for  one  of  a  month.  Exposure  to  cold  rains  should 
be  specially  guarded  against,  and  if  by  inadvertence  a  lamb  is  found 
chilled  and  rigid  from  such  exposure,  it  may  generally  be  restored 
by  means  of  a  bath  of  warm  water  and  a  teaspoonful  of  warm  sweet- 
ened gin  and  water.  After  the  bath  the  lamb  should  be  gently 
dried,  wrapped  in  a  warm  flannel,  and  placed  near  a  fire  or  in  a 
wooden  box  in  a  gently  heated  oven  of  a  common  stove.  Where 
the  flock  is  large,  and  the  kitchen  is  not  within  reach,  the  shepherd 
should  have  the  conveniences  of  a  shed  and  an  old  cooking-stove 
in  which  he  can  keep  a  fire  sufficient  to  heat  a  water  bath,  and  pro- 
vide a  warm  bed  in  the  oven  for  any  lamb  that  may  need  such 
attention  ;  if  the  flock  numbers  several  hundred  head  in  all, 
there  will  seldom  be  a  day  in  our  changeable  spring  seasons  when 
there  will  not  be  one  or  more  patients  to  be  treated.  The  specific 
diseases  to  which  lambs  are  subject  will  be  found  treated  of  at 
large  in  Chapter  VII. 

As  the  season  progresses,  and  shearing  time  for  the  ewes  has 
passed,  the  lambs  will  be  found  covered  with  ticks,  unless  care  has 
been  exercised  to  free  the  flock  from  this  tormenting  pest.  These 
ticks  are  wingless,  broad,  plump,  dark  red  insects,  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  in  length,  and  covered  with  a  very  tough  and  leathery 
integument.  They  are  known  scientifically  as  Melophagus  ovinus, 
and  produce  a  puparium  which  is  nearly  round  in  shape,  red  in 
color,  and  as  large  as  a  radish  seed  or  duck  shot.  The  legs  of  the 
tick  are  short  and  stout,  and  it  adheres  with  great  tenacity  to  the 
wool.  By  means  of  a  proboscis  as  long  as  its  head,  it  pierces  the 
skin  and  sucks  the  blood  of  its  victim  to  such  an  excess  that  when 
numerous,  they  have  been  known  to  almost  entirely  empty  the 


REMEDY  FOR  TICKS.  47 

veins  and  deprive  a  lamb  of  life.  The  draft  upon  the  vitality  of 
lambs  inf  ested  with  ticks  is  very  great,  and  sufficient  to  arrest  their 
growth  altogether.  To  rid  the  flock  of  these  pests  is  therefore  a 
necessary  labor  in  the  spring  or  early  summer,  and  if  need  be, 
again  in  the  autumn.  The  easiest  remedy  is  to  dip  both  sheep  and 
lambs,  as  soon  as  the  sheep  are  shorn,  and  again  in  August  or 
September,  in  a  decoction  of  tobacco  mixed  with  sulphur.  Coarse 
plug  tobacco,  or  tobacco  stems,  which  are  cheaper  than  the  leaves, 
and  equally  effective,  are  steeped  in  water  at  a  boiling  heat,  but 
not  boiling,  at  the  rate  of  four  pounds  to  twenty  gallons  of  water. 


Fig.  16.— DIPPING  SHEEP. 

One  pound  of  flowers  of  sulphur  is  then  stirred  in  the  liquid,  which 
is  brought  to  a  temperature  of  120  degrees,  and  kept  so  during  the 
dipping  by  the  addition  of  fresh  hot  liquor.  During  the  dipping, 
the  mixture  is  kept  stirred  to  prevent  the  sulphur  from  subsiding. 
The  dip  may  be  conveniently  placed  in  a  trough  or  a  tub  large 
enough  to  allow  of  the  immersion  of  the  sheep  or  the  lamb,  which 
is  taken  by  the  feet  by  two  men  and  plunged  into  the  bath  at  the 
temperature  mentioned,  where  it  is  held  for  a  minute  or  two  until 
the  wool  is  thoroughly  saturated.  The  animal  is  then  placed  in  a 
pen  with  a  raised  floor  sloping  on  each  side,  to  a  trough  in  the 
middle,  along  which  the  superabundant  liquor  escapes  into  a  pail 
or  tub  placed  to  receive  it.  The  method  of  dipping,  (shown  at 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


figures  16  and  17),  is  calculated  for  small  flocks,  or  for  a  few  hun- 
dred lambs.    For  larger  flocks,  a  larger  tank  is  provided,  12  feet 
long,  three  feet  wide,  and  four  feet  deep.     A  fenced  platform  leads 
from  a  pen  hi  which  the  sheep  are  gathered,  up  to  the  edge  of  the 
dipping  tank,  and  the  sheep  are  taken  one  by  one  from  the  pen, 
led  up  the  platform,  and  pushed  into  the  tank  in  which  the  dip 
is  sufficiently  deep  to  cover  them.     As  the  sheep  plunge  into  the 
dip,  they  are  seized,  and  kept  beneath  it,  except  the  head,  which 
alone  is  sufiered  to  emerge  above  it.    If  hi  their  struggles  a  little 
of  the  dip  should  enter  their  nostrils,  no  harm  results,  but  the  hot 
tobacco  water  is,  on  the  contrary,  often  beneficial  to  those  sheep 
which  are  affected  by  catarrh  or  grub  in  the  head,  and  the  violent 
sneezings  which  follow  may  help  to  free  them  from  these  trouble- 
some parasites  which  often  inhabit  the  nasal  sinuses.    The  sheep 
are  rapidly  passed 
from  hand  to  hand 
along  the  tank  un- 
til they  reach  the 
end,  where  there  is 
a     sloping     plank 
upon   which    they 
can    walk    up    to 
another     platform. 
Here  they  are   al- 
lowed   to    remain 
while  the  excess  of 
dip     is     squeezed 
from    their    wool. 
From      this      the 
liquid  drains  into  tubs,  and  is  carried  to  the  boiler  to  be  re- 
heated, and  then  returned  to  the  tank  for  use  again.     The  cost  of 
dipping  a  large  flock,  numbering  several  thousands,  in  this  man- 
ner twice  in  the  season  is  five  cents  a  head,  and  the  improvement 
in  the  quality  of  the  wool,  which  results  from  the  cleansing  of  the 
skin  from  dust,  grease,  and  the  accumulated  refuse  of  its  secre- 
tions, and  its  increase  in  quantity  consequent  upon  the  greater 
comfort  of  the  sheep  and  their  escape  from  the  persecution  of 
ticks  and  other  parasites,  is  estimated  at  20  cents  per  head,  so  that 
the  cost  is  repaid  more  than  three-fold.    The  comforting  knowl- 
edge to  the  humane  shepherd  that  his  flock  is  freed  from  a  most 
annoying  torment,  is  also  something,  which,  although  it  does  not 
enter  into  a  pecuniary  calculation,  and  is  not  measured  by  dollars 
and  cents,  yet  is  not  on  that  account  unworthy  of  consideration, 


Fig.  17. — TROUGH  FOB  DIPPING  LAMBS. 


WINTER  MANAGEMENT.  49 

There  is  no  greater  satisfaction  to  the  owner  of  a  flock,  who  cares 
for  his  sheep,  and  takes  pleasure  in  their  welfare,  and  in  a  measure 
loves  the  gentle  kindly  animals,  and  is  interested  in  managing  them 
so  that  they  may  enjoy  all  the  comfort  possible  for  them,  than  to 
know  that,  so  far  as  any  efforts  of  his  are  concerned,  nothing  is 
left  undone  that  can  add  to  their  contentment,  and  that  they  are 
spared  every  discomfort  and  pain  that  it  is  possible  to  prevent 


CHAPTER  IV. 
WINTER  MANAGEMENT    OF   SHEEP. 

The  change  from  green,  succulent  food,  to  that  of  a  dry  and 
concentrated  character,  is  one  that  needs  to  be  cautiously  made. 
As  the  summer  departs  and  the  fall  rains  occur,  succeeded  in  their 
turn  by  the  more  rigorous  storms  of  whiter,  conditions  arise  which 
call  for  a  complete  change  of  management  on  the  part  of  the  shep- 
herd who  looks  for  profit  from  his  flock.  It  may  be  a  question 
with  some  if  quality  of  feed  or  shelter  is  the  more  important  con- 
sideration in  the  best  management  of  sheep.  Certainly  abun- 
dant experience  has  shown  that  with  the  most  careful  and 
judicious  feeding,  sheep,  which  when  well  tended  are  in  reality 
hardier  than  are  generally  supposed,  have  passed  safely  and 
thriftily  through  a  winter's  storms  with  no  more  shelter  than 
that  afforded  by  an  open  shed;  and  that  they  have  of  their 
own  free  will  refused  the  shelter,  and  have  chosen  to  rest  upon 
the  bare  snow,  at  times  when  the  air  has  been  dry  and  clear.  But 
no  case  has  as  yet  ever  occurred  in  the  experience  of  any  shepherd 
in  which  sheep  have  thrived  without  ivell  selected,  proper,  and 
abundant  food,  and  cases  are  always  occurring  in  which  sheep 
are  greatly  injured  by  excessive  carefulness  in  this  matter  of 
shelter.  To  feed  well  and  judiciously,  may  therefore  be 
regarded  as  the  first  duty  and  interest  of  the  shepherd ;  and  to 
shelter  the  flock  only  so  far  as  to  maintain  it  in  healthful  con- 
dition, avoiding  exposure  to  unusual  rigors  of  heat  or  storm, 
will  be  not  exactly  a  second  duty,  but  one  that  attaches  to  this 
first  interest  as  being  intimately  associated  with  it  rather  than 
separated  from  it.  Nevertheless,  as  before  a  flock  can  be  fed,  it  ia 
3 


50 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


necessary  to  have  a  store  of  food  and  a  feeding  place,  it  may  be 
well  to  consider  first  the  subjects  of  shelters  or  barns,  feed  racks, 
and  facilities  for  watering. 

The  first  requisites  for  the  comfort  of  sheep  in  their  winter 
lodging  are  a  dry  clean  floor,  a  tight  roof,  and  abundant  ventila- 
tion. The  site  of  a  sheep-house  should  therefore  be  well  drained, 
and  of  such  a  character  that  it  can  be  kept  clean  and  free  from 
filth.  It  should,  if  possible,  be  on  high  ground  which  slopes  each 
way  from  it,  but  at  any  rate  it  should  slope  to  the  south  or  south- 
east. The  house  should  be  well  roofed  and  provided  with  rain 
troughs  and  spouts  to  carry  the  water  away  from  the  yard  into 
either  a  covered  drain  or  a  cistern.  It  should  be  open  at  the  front, 
protected  only  by  a  projecting  roof,  and  the  walls,  if  of  boards, 
need  not  be  battened  over  the  joints,  as  the  air  which  will  enter 


Fig.  13.— SHEEP  BABN. 

through  these  cracks  will  be  no  more  than  will  be  needed  to  keep 
that  within  fresh  and  pure.  Some  more  carefully  protected  shelter 
must  be  provided  for  the  use  of  yeaning  ewes  and  young  lambs, 
in  a  part  of  the  house  or  in  another  building,  but  until  the  appear- 
ance of  the  lambs  is  looked  for,  this  warmer  shelter  will  not  be 
needed.  The  loft  over  the  lower  apartment  will  be  used  for  stor- 
ing hay  or  other  fodder,  and  space  for  this  purpose  may  be  econ- 
omized by  having  the  upper  floor  only  so  far  above  the  ground 
floor  as  will  allow  the  shepherd  a  comfortable  passage  beneath  it. 
A  building  which  is  well  arranged  and  convenient  is  shown  in 
figures  18,  19,  20,  and  21.  The  following  description  with  the 
illustrations  are  taken  from  the  American  Agriculturist.  It  con- 
sists of  a  barn,  shown  at  fig.  18,  about  20  feet  wide,  16  feet  high 


BARNS  AND   SHEDS. 


51 


from  basement  to  eaves,  and  as  long  as  desirable.  This  is  intended 
to  store  the  hay  or  fodder.  The  posts,  sills,  and  plates  are  all  8 
inches  square,  the  girts  and  braces  are  4  inches  square,  the  beams 
2x10,  are  placed  16  inches  apart,  and  are  cross-bridged  with 
strips,  3  inches  wide.  The  hay  is  piled  inside,  so  that  the  feed 
passage  below,  over 
which  there  are  trap- 
doors, is  left  uncov- 
ered. The  hay  is 
thrown  down  through 
these  doors,  and  falls 
upon  a  sloping  shelf, 
which  carries  it  into 
the  feed  racks  below, 
(see  fig.  19).  The 
basement  under  the 
barn  is  8  feet  high, 
and  is  of  stone  on 
three  sides ;  the  front 
is  supported  by  posts 
8  inches  square,  and  8 
feet  apart.  Between 
each  pair  of  posts  a 
door  is  hung  upon 
pins,  (fig.  20),  which 
fit  into  grooves  in  the 
posts,  so  that  the  door 
may  be  raised  and  Fig.  ^.-SECTION  OF  BUILDING. 

fastened,  in  such  a  manner,  as  to  close  the  upper  half  of  the  space 
between  the  posts ;  or  be  .held  suspended  half  way,  leaving  the 
whole  open;  or  be  shut  clown  and  close  the  lower  half;  or  be 
removed  altogether.  By  this  contrivance  at  least  half  the  front 
of  the  basement  must  be  left  open, 
whether  the  sheep  be  shut  in  or  out. 
The  floor  of  the  basement  should  be 
slightly  sloping  from  rear  to  front,  so 
that  it  will  always  be  dry.  Fig.  21  shows 
the  plan  of  the  basement.  The  feed- 


Fig.  20.— HANGING  DOOR 
FOR  BARN. 


passage  is  shown  at  c ;  the  stairway  to  the  root-cellar  at  b,  and  the 
root-cellar  at  a.  Fig.  19  gives  a  section  of  the  whole  barn.  The 
hay-loft  is  above,  and  the  passage-way  and  the  doors,  by  which  the 
hay  is  thrown  down  to  the  feed-racks  below ;  as  well  as  the  sloping 
shelf  by  which  the  hay  is  carried  into  the  feed-racks  are  shown. 


52  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

Below  the  feed-rack  is  the  feed-trough  for  roots  or  meal.  A  door 
shuts  off  this  trough  from  the  sheep  at  the  front,  while  the  feed  is 
being  prepared,  and  when  it  is  ready,  the  door  is  raised,  and  held 
up  to  the  feed-rack  by  a  strap  or  a  hook.  The  feed-rack  is  closely 


Fig.  21.  —GROUND  PLAN  OP  BARN. 

boarded  behind,  and  this  back  part,  which  is  in  the  feed-passage, 
slopes  forward  to  the  front,  so  as  to  carry  the  hay  forward  to  the 
bottom.  The  front  of  the  rack  is  of  upright  slats,  smoothly 
dressed,  two  inches  wide,  and  placed  three  inches  apart.  The 
boards  of  the  feed-trough  are  smoothly  dressed  and  sand-papered, 
and  all  the  edges  are  rounded,  so  that  there  is  nothing  by  which 
the  wool  may  be  torn  or  rubbed  off  from  the  sheep's  necks.  It 
will  be  seen  by  this  arrangement,  that  there  is  no  dangerous  thing 


Fig.  22.— SHEEP  SHED  FOR  A  SMALL  FARM. 

by  which  a  sheep  or  a  lamb  might  be  hurt,  nor  a  place  where  it 
can  get  into  mischief.  The  root-cellar  is  at  the  rear  of  the  base- 
ment, and  is  reached  by  the  stairs  already  mentioned.  The  cost 
of  the  barn  here  described,  if  built  of  pine  or  hemlock  lumber,  in 


BARNS  AND  SHEDS. 


53 


54 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MAKUAL. 


a  plain  manner,  and  of  sufficient  size  to  accommodate  100  sheep, 
would  be  from  $300  to  $500. 

Another  sheep-house  suitable  for  small  farms,  that  is  designed 
for  small  flocks,  is  shown  at  figure  22.  It  is  altogether  open 
in  the  front  on 
the  ground  floor, 
and  is  intended 
to  face  to  the 
south.  This  is  a 
very  cheap  and 
convenient  shed 
for  a  small  flock  ; 
it  has  an  enclosed 
yard  attached  to 
it.  A  shelter  in- 
tended for  a  large 
flock  is  shown  at 

figure  23.     This 

building    was 

erected    by    Mr. 

George  Grant,  of 

Victoria,  Kansas, 

for  his  flock  of 

7,000  sheep.  The 

walls  are  of  stone, 

and  the  roof  of 

boards.  The  main 

structure    is  570 

feet    in    length, 

and     the     three 

wings  are  each  of 

equal  length.  The 

width  of  each  of 

the   sheds  is    24 

feet,  and  thehight 

of   the  walls   10 


feet.   At  one  cor- 
ner of  the  "  cor- 


Fig.  21.— MB.  SHAW'S  SHEEP  SHED. 


ral,"  which  is  the  name  given  on  the  western  plains  to  such  sheds 
as  this  and  other  enclosures,  is  the  shepherd's  house,  in  which  he 
resides,  and  is  at  all  times  near  his  flock,  and  able  to  render  imme- 
diate attention.  A  shed  of  this  character  is  rather  costly  in  its 
construction,  and  a  small  capitalist  would  find  it  beyond  the  limit 


BARNS  AND  SHEDS. 


55 


of  his  resources.  One  of  a  cheaper  construction  and  less  perma- 
nent character,  but  nevertheless  of  equal  value  for  shelter  so  long 
as  it  lasts,  is  shown  in  figure  24.  This  shed  was  built  by  Mr. 
Shaw,  of  Syracuse,  Kansas,  and  was  found  to  answer  every  pur- 
pose. It  is  made  of  posts  set  in  the  ground,  which  support  a  single 
sloping  roof  that  is  thatched  with  coarse  hay  from  the  river  bot- 
toms adjacent  to  his  location.  The  enclosure  contains  a  windmill, 
watering  trough,  stack-yard,  and  feed-racks,  and  is  intended  to 
accommodate  a  flock  of  200  to  300  sheep-  The  length  of  the  en- 
closure is  200  feet, 
and  the  width  100 
feet,  making  in  all 
600  feet  of  shed. 
Figure  25  represents 
the  sheep-fold  of 
Mr.  Henry  Nason, 
of  Orange  C.  H., 
Virginia,  in  which 
his  flock  of  300  ewes 
sheltered  from 


d 


cl 


A 


IS 

the  weather  as  well 
as  from  dogs  and 
thieves  by  night. 
This  flock  is  kept 
mainly  for  the  pro- 
duction of  early 
lambs  for  market. 
Especial  attention 
ia  given  to  the  com- 
fort  and  care  of  Fig.  25,-PLAN  OF  MB.  NASON'S  SHED. 

the  ewes  and  the  lambs,  and  warm  separate  pens  are  provided  for 
them  when  they  require  them.  The  yard,  «,  is  100  feet  square, 
divided  by  a  hurdle  fence,  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  into  as  many 
portions  as  may  be  desired.  The  entrance  is  at  £,  where  there  is  a 
gate  hung  upon  a  post,  c,  in  such  a  way  as  to  open  or  close  each 
lalf  of  the  yard.  The  yard  is  enclosed  on  three  sides  by  a 
shed  10  feet  high,  with  a  roof  sloping  both  ways.  The  ground 
loor,  7  feet  high,  is  appropriated  for  sheep  pens,  and  the  three 
feet  above  for  a  hay  loft.  The  shed  is  12  feet  wide,  and  has  a 
row  of  separate  pens  6  feet  wide,  upon  the  north  side.  On  the 
other  sides  there  are  narrow  doors  for  the  sheep,  seen  at  <?,  c?,  and 
sliding  shutters,  e,  e,  8  feet  long,  and  3£  feet  high,  which  are  also 
used  for  entrances  to  the  shed.  The  yard  is  closed  at  the  front  by 


56  THE  SHEPHEBD'S  MANUAL. 

a  fence  10  feet  high.  There  are  no  outside  windows,  and  only  two 
doors,  and  but  one  of  these,  that  at  /,  is  locked  from  the  out- 
side, so  that  the  turning  of  one  key  secures  the  whole  enclos- 
ure from  trespassers.  There  is  a  second  yard,  150  by  135  feet, 
upon  the  south  side  of  the  sheep  yard,  with  an  open  shed  facing 
the  south,  and  divided  into  pens  9  feet  deep,  for  cows  or  sheep, 
and  a  pig  pen  35  feet  square,  at  the  south-east  of  the  sheep  yards. 
These  sheds  are  made  of  inch  boards,  nailed  up  and  down  upon 
the  frame  work,  and  the  roof  is  of  boards,  with  a  sufficient  pitch  to 
shed  rain  perfectly. 

In  estimating  the  size  of  the  sheds  required  for  any  given  num- 
ber of  sheep  it  will  be  safe  to  allow  10  square  feet  of  floor  to  each 
sheep,  when  a  yard  adjoining  the  shed  is  provided,  and  there  is 
abundant  ventilation  in  the  shed ;  and  12£  square  feet  when  there 
is  no  yard,  but  only  the  most  ample  ventilation  by  means  of  boards 
at  the  eaves,  to  be  let  down,  and  trap-doors  in  the  roof  to  be 
opened.  Space  may  be  economized  if  thought  desirable,  and  the 
expense  of  the  sheds  reduced,  by  having  a  second  floor  for  the 
sheep  which  is  reached  by  means  of  a  sloping  passage-way  of 
planks  upon  which  cleats  are  nailed  crosswise  to  afford  a  foothold. 
Sheep  will  readily  ascend  a  gang-way  of  this  kind,  and  will  choose 
the  upper  in  preference  to  the  ground  floor.  The  upper  floor 
in  this  case  must  be  made  perfectly  close  and  tight,  of  matched 
boards  tarred  at  the  joints,  and  ample  dry  bedding  should  be  pro- 
vided to  absorb  all  the  moisture.  This  floor  should  not  be 
less  than  seven  feet  above  the  ground  floor ;  this  will  secure  suf- 
ficient ventilation  if  the  lower,  doors  are  double,  and  the  upper 
halves  are  kept  open,  and  there  are  a  sufficient  number  of  open 
windows  or  ventilating  boards  or  spaces.  A  shed  20  by  50  feet 
will  comfortably  contain  100  moderate-sized  sheep ;  75  large  Cots- 
wold  or  Leicester  sheep  have  been  accommodated  in  a  lean-to  shed 
of  this  size,  with  ventilating  boards  and  traps  in  the  roof.  In 
this  shed  there  was  a  ventilating  board  arranged  near  the  bottom 
by  partly  opening  which,  a  plenty  of  fresh  air  could  be  admitted. 
On  the  whole,  the  sheds  with  a  half  open  front,  that  may  be  closed 
wholly  or  partly,  with  a  yard  adjoining,  will  be  found  preferable 
to  those  which  are  made  to  be  entirely  closed. 

A  convenient  barn  which  furnishes  space  for  shearing,  room  for 
the  storage  of  wool,  pens  for  lambs  and  ewes,  and  lofts  for  fodder 
and  straw,  with  ample  open  sheds  and  a  roomy  yard,  is  shown  at 
figure  26.  It  can  be  made  larger  or  smaller,  to  suit  the  needs  of  a 
large  or  small  flock.  The  main  building,  of  which  this  is  a  repre- 
sentation, is  raised  four  feet  from  the  ground  upon  posts,  and  the 


BAKNS  AND   SHEDS. 


space  thus  gained  furnishes  additional  shelter.  This  barn  has  the 
advantage  of  being  suitable  for  a  cattle  barn  in  case  sheep-keeping 
is  abandoned  for  a 
time,  and  is  well 
adapted  to  either  west- 
ern or  eastern  sheep 
or  stock  farming. 
As  perfect  cleanliness 
and  pure  air  are  ne- 
cessary to  the  health- 
fulness  of  the  flock, 
the  matter  of  litter  in 
the  sheds  and  yards, 
as  well  as  the  drain- 
age of  the  roof  and 
floor,  are  to  be  well 
provided  for.  Eaves- 
troughs,  gutters  and 
waste-pipes  should  be 
provided  and  made 
to  discharge  into  a 
drain,  which  will  car- 
ry the  rain  water  be- 
neath the  ground, 
away  from  the  yard. 
The  litter  should  be 
dry,  plentiful,  and  of 
a  kind  that  is  absorb- 
ent. If  plentifully 
given,  and  if  the  right 
kind,  it  may  be  allow- 
ed to  accumulate  for 
the  whole  whiter 
without  removal,  and 
in  so  doing  there  will 
be  less  odor  in  the 
shed  than  if  it  were 
cleaned  out  weekly. 
The  litter  and  the 
droppings  are  trod- 
den down  very  compactly,  and  the  mass  being  thus  kept  from 
the  access  of  air,  only  a  very  slow  decomposition  occurs  which 
gives  off  no  more  smell  or  vapor  than  can  be  absorbed  by  the  fresh 


58  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

litter  daily  thrown  down  in  the  shed.  Hardwood  sawdust,  dry 
seasoned  peat  or  swamp  muck,  forest  leaves,  dried  spent  tan- 
bark,  long  or  cut  straw,  chaff,  or  even  sand,  make  very  good  litter 
and  absorbents.  If  a  supply  of  these  materials  can  be  procured, 
sufficient  for  daily  use  in  a  crowded  pen  or  yard,  the  straw,  which 
would  otherwise  be  needed  for  this  purpose,  may  with  great 
economy  be  reserved  for  fodder.  If  straw  or  corn-fodder  cut  into 
small  pieces,  is  fed  in  the  racks  once  a  day,  there  will  be  a  certain 
portion  pulled  out  on  to  the  floor  which  will  add  to  the  litter.  If 
straw  is  used  for  litter,  it  should  be  cut  into  chaff,  which  will 
much  facilitate  the  removal  of  the  manure  in  the  spring.  This  is 
especially  convenient  if  pea  straw  is  used,  for  when  a  quantity  of 
pea  straw  and  manure  is  trodden  together,  they  form  such  a 
tangled  mass  that  it  is  a  most  tiresome  labor  to  fork  it  up  and  re- 
move it.  Corn-stalks  should  not  be  thrown  under  foot  for  the 
same  reason.  If  it  is  thought  proper  to  remove  the  litter  and 
dung  periodically,  every  week  for  instance,  then  the  floor  should 
afterwards  receive  a  heavy  coating  of  dry  litter.  In  case  the  ma- 
nure is  removed,  it  should  not  on  any  account  be  heaped  in  the 
yard.  It  will  undergo  an  active  fermentation  and  become  hot, 
giving  forth  clouds  of  vapor  in  damp  weather,  and  at  all  times 
pungent  gases.  Some  of  the  sheep  will  choose  the  manure  heap 
to  lie  upon  at  nights,  and  every  one  that  is  suffered  to  do  this  will 
inevitably  sicken,  and  become  affected  with  catarrh  or  pneumonia, 
or  lose  its  wool  in  patches.  Either  the  litter  should  not  be  cleaned 
out  at  all,  or  it  should  be  removed  to  a  distance  from  the  yards. 
It  is  easy  to  manage  matters  either  way,  so  that  the  air  of  the  shed 
will  be  pure  and  free  from  offensive  smell,  if  proper  attention  is 
given,  and  the  shepherd  is  watchful  and  careful  of  the  condition 
of  the  floors  of  the  shed. 

The  feed-racks  should  be  so  made  that  the  sheep  can  procure 
their  feed  without  tearing  the  wool  from  their  necks  or  filling 
their  fleeces  with  dust,  chaff,  or  hay-seed.  The  floor  of  the  loft 
should  be  made  close  and  tight,  using  either  matched  boards  or 
double  boards  laid  so  as  to  break  joints,  and  prevent  the  dropping 
of  dust  from  above.  A  rack  for  hay  or  straw  should  be  made  in 
the  manner  shown  at  figure  27;  it  should  be  3i  feet  high  at  the 
front.  The  bars  are  only  three  inches  apart.  They  should  be 
made  of  ash,  chestnut,  or  oak  strips,  dressed  and  smoothly  sand- 
papered, and  an  inch  thick  by  one  and  a  quarter  wide.  The  front 
of  the  rack  should  slope  backwards  at  the  top  3  or  4  inches.  This 
prevents  hay  or  clover  dust  from  falling  out  upon  the  sheeps' 
heads.  At  the  rear  of  the  rack  sloping  boards  are  fitted,  so  that 


FEED   BACKS. 


59 


as  part  of  the  hay  is  eaten,  the  rest  falls  down  to  the  front  where 
the  sheep  can  reach  it.  The  end  of  the  rack  should  be  closed  with 
bars  in  the  same  way  as  the  front,  so  that  young  lambs  cannot 
creep  in  and  get  lost.  For  want  of  this  precaution  a  fine  lively 
young  lamb  will  sometimes  get  into  a  tight  place,  where  it  may 
become  chilled  and  die.  This  rack  may  be  made  of  any  length, 
and  should  ex- 
tend all  round  the 
shed  in  order  to 
give  the  greatest 
possible  extent 
of  feeding  room. 
The  form  of  this 
rack  prevents  the 
sheep  from 
thrusting  their 
heads  between 
the  bars  and 
wearing  the  wool 
from  their  necks, 
or  from  stran- 
gling themselves 
by  getting  their 
heads  fast  be- 
tween the  bars,  which  they  will  do  with  many  of  the  racks  in 
common  use,  of -which  the  bars  are  frequently  too  far  apart. 

For  feeding  cut  or  pulped  roots,  or  fine  feed,  such  as  bran-meal 
or  grain,  a  rack  made  on  the  plan  of  that  shown  at  figure  8  on 
page  31,  will  be  useful.  The  rack  there  figured  is  a  portable  one 
intended  for  use  in  the  field  or  yard,  but  a  fixed  rack  similar  to  it 
may  be  made  in  the  shed  if  desired.  The  bars  placed  over  the 
rack  prevent  the  stronger  sheep  from  crowding  the  weaker  ones 
from  their  feed,  and  getting  more  than  their  share,  and  also  pre- 
vent the  more  active  ones  from  leaping  into  the  trough  in  their 
eagerness  to  procure  an  undue  portion  of  food. 

The  variety  of  foods  suitable  for  the  winter  feeding  is  extensive. 
Hay,  straw,  pea  and  bean  haulm,  corn-fodder,  roots  of  various 
kinds,  corn,  oats,  peas,  rye,  buckwheat,  cotton-seed  and  linseed 
oil-cake-meal,  and  bran,  furnish  a  variety  of  food  from  which  a 
proper  choice  can  readily  be  made.  The  relative  feeding  values 
of  these  various  substances  used  as  food,  will  determine  their  rela- 
tive money  values,  and  as  these  differ  and  fluctuate  from  time  to 
time,  it  is  often  necessary,  to  secure  the  most  profit  on  the  feeding, 


Fig.  27.— FEED-BACK. 


60 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


to  choose  the  food  that  is  most  economical  in  use,  although  it  may 
be  the  highest  in  price.  Clover  hay  is  the  most  valuable  single  food 
for  winter  use,  if  it  has  been  cut  when  in  blossom,  cured  so  as  to 
preserve  all  its  good  qualities,  and  kept  free  from  damp  and  mold. 
Where  the  main  object  hi  view  is  the  production  of  market  lambs, 
clover  hay  should  furnish  the  chief  subsistence  of  the  ewes.  It 
will  also  be  found  preferable  as  the  staple  and  cheapest  fodder 
when  sheep  are  purchased  for  feeding  for  market,  and  the  most 
rapid  growth  of  flesh  is  desirable.  Well  cured  pea  straw  will  be 
chosen  by  sheep  next  to  clover  hay  and  before  timothy  or  any 
other  hay.  Oat  straw  is  readily  eaten  by  sheep,  and  is  a  healthful 
food,  especially  if  harvested  before  the  oats  were  dead  ripe.  Bar- 
ley, wheat,  and  rye  straw  will  help  to  keep  life  in  a  flock,  but  are 
not  sufficiently  nutritive  to  contribute  much  to  the  growth  of  flesh 
or  wool,  and  should  be  used  only  as  adjuncts  to  roots  and  grain, 
or  oil-cake-meal.  Rye  straw  is  apt  to  be  sprinkled  with  dust  of 
ergot,  a  fungus  which  is  frequently  found  growing  on  the  heads  of 
rye,  and  which  has  a  highly  injurious  effect  upon  pregnant  ewes, 
producing  abortion  or  premature  births  of  the  lambs.  Rye  straw 
is  also  frequently  the  cause  of  great  inflammation  of  the  stomachs 
and  intestines  of  sheep,  from  the  penetration  of  the  mucous  coats 
by  the  sharp  awns  or  beards  of  the  heads.  Cases  have  occurred 
in  which  the  stomachs  of  sheep  fed  on  rye  or  bearded  wheat  straw, 
have  been  found  after  death  thickly  studded  with  the  beards, 
which  caused  inflammation  of  the  coats  of  the  stomachs  and  con- 
sequent death.  Such  straw  should  be  avoided  as  food,  and  used 
only  for  litter.  The  haulm  of  beans  when  well  cured  and  saved, 
is  both  palatable  and  nutritious,  and  the  leaves  of  corn-stalks  fur- 
nish a  food  which  is  useful  as  a  change  of  fodder,  but  is  not  nutri- 
tious enough  of  itself  to  support  sheep  in  good  condition.  The 
relative  values  of  the  various  dry  fodders  above  mentioned  may  be 
estimated  from  the  following  tables,  hi  which  their  composition 
and  the  proportion  of  actual  nutritive  matter  contained  are  given. 

COMPOSITION  OF  HAY,   STRAW,  AND  CORN-FODDEB. 


IN  100  PARTS  OF 

Water. 

Ash 

Organic 
Matter. 

flesh 
Form- 
ers. 

Fat, 
Starch, 
&  Gum. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Meadow  Hay  

14  3 

6  2 

79  5 

8.2 

41.3 

30.0 

Red  Clover  Hay  

16  7 

6  2 

77  1 

13  4 

29.9 

35.8 

Pea  Straw 

14  3 

4  0 

81  7 

6  5 

35  2 

40  0 

Bean  Straw 

17  3 

5  0 

77  7 

10  2 

33  5 

34  0 

Wheat  Straw  

Rye  Straw                     .     . 

14.3 
14  2 

5'.5 
3  2 

80.0 
82  5 

2.0 
1  5 

30.2 
27  0 

48.0 
54  0 

Barley  Straw 

14  3 

7  0 

78  7 

3  0 

32  7 

43  0 

Oat  Straw           

14  3 

5  0 

HO  7 

2  5 

38  2 

40.0 

Corn  Fodder... 

14.0 

4.0 

82.0 

3.0 

39.0 

40.0 

FEEDING  VALUE  OF  HAY  AND  STKAW.  61 

The  composition  of  clover  hay  here  given  is  of  that  cut  when  in 
blossom.  If  cut  when  ripe,  this  hay  has  4  per  cent  less  of  flesh- 
forming  material,  9  per  cent  less  of  fat,  starch,  sugar,  and  gum,  or 
material  for  f orming  fat  and  sustaining  respiration,  and  over  12  per 
per  cent  more  of  crude  fiber  or  indigestible  matter. 


COMPARATIVE  NUTRITIVE  VALUES  OP  HAY,   STRAW,  ETC., 
IN  ONE  HUNDRED  PARTS. 

Meadow  Hay  (as  the  basis)  is  estimated  at 10.0 

Clover  Hay 12.5 

Pea  Straw 16.5 

Bean  Straw 18.6 

Wheat  Straw 2.0 

Rye  Straw 1.6 

Barley  Straw 2.0 

Oat  Straw 1.8 

Corn-fodder,  (leaves),  (estimated) 2.5 


The  different  quantities  of  these  several  fodders  which  would 
have  to  be  fed  to  produce  equal  nutritive  effects,  may  be  tabulated 
as  follows,  each  quantity  given  being  equivalent  to  10  pounds  of 
common  meadow  hay  of  mixed  grasses  of  standard  quality. 


QUANTITIES  OF  VARIOUS  FODDERS  EQUAL    TO  10  POUNDS  OF 
HAY  IN  FEEDING  VALUE. 

Meadow  Hay 10     pounds. 

Clover  Hay 8 

Pea  Straw 6 

Bean  Straw 61/! 

Wheat  Straw 52 

Bye  Straw 61 

Barley  Straw 52 

Oat  Straw 55 

Corn-fodder....  ...40 


The  last  two  tables  must  be  taken  with  some  qualifications. 
The  values  of  these  different  articles  of  fodder  are  subject  to  very 
great  variations,  arising  out  of  the  conditions  of  their  growth 
and  the  time  and  manner  of  harvesting,  curing  and  preserving 
them.  With  the  single  exception  of  corn-fodder,  however,  the 
estimates  here  given  will  approach  v6ry  nearly  the  actual  feeding 
values  as  found  in  practice ;  the  corn-fodder  will  be  found  of 
somewhat  higher  value  than  indicated  by  the  above  figures,  esti- 
mated from  a  comparison  of  its  constituents  with  those  of  oat 


62  THE  SHEPHEKD'S  MANUAL. 

straw.  Generally,  those  who  have  fed  this  material  largely,  and 
who  have  taken  pains  to  harvest  it  when  the  corn  is  just  glazed, 
and  before  the  frost  has  stricken  it,  and  to  cure  and  house  it  care- 
fully, will  agree  that  it  at  least  more  nearly  approaches  in  value  to 
good  meadow  hay  than  to  oat  straw,  while  some  careful,  intelli- 
gent, and  observant  feeders  will  insist  that  is  very  nearly,  if  not 
quite  equal  as  fodder,  to  ordinary  meadow  hay.  The  impossibil- 
ity of  subsisting  sheep  upon  straw  will  be  manifest  when  its  value 
Is  compared  with  that  of  bay;  for  if  3  pounds  of  hay  would  sup- 
ply a  sheep  of  100  Ibs.  live  weight  with  sufficient  nutriment  to 
maintain  it  in  a  thriving  condition,  as  it  should  do,  17  to  20  Ibs.  of 
straw  would  be  required  as  an  equivalent,  which  is  a  quantity  that 
no  sheep  could  possibly  be  made  to  consume.  Therefore,  when 
sheep  are  wintered  in  the  straw  yard,  unless  they  have  a  sufficient 
supply  of  grain  along  with  the  small  quantity  of  straw  they  can 
be  made  to  consume,  they  must  live  in  a  state  of  semi-starvation, 
a  condition  in  which  unfortunately  not  a  few  flocks  are  expected 
to  exist.  Roots  furnish  a  staple  food  of  the  greatest  value  for 
winter  feeding  of  sheep.  When  fed  in  proper  quantities,  their 
laxative  effect  healthfully  opposes  the  tendency  of  dry  hay  or 
straw  to  produce  costiveness,  and  in  addition  they  supply  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  needed  phosphates  and  sulphur  for  the 
growing  animal  and  its  fleece.  But  if  fed  in  excess,  the  large 
quantity  of  water  they  contain,  and  their  large  bulk,  especially 
when  they  are  fed  in  the  winter,  reduce  the  temperature  of  the 
animal  too  much,  and  gradually  act  unfavorably  on  the  health. 
When  ewes  in  lamb  are  fed  roots  in  any  but  very  small  quantities, 
abortion  is  frequently  produced,  and  this  ill  effect  has  been  noticed 
more  conspicuously  when  the  roots  have  been  manured  heavily 
with  superphosphate  of  lime.  This  has  been  noticed  by  some  ex- 
tensive feeders  and  breeders  in  England",  where  that  fertilizer  is 
largely  used  in  root  culture,  and  their  experience  should  serve  as 
a  warning  to  us.  The  reason  assigned  for  the  loss  of  lambs  by 
abortion  when  many  turnips  are  fed,  is  not  only  that  the  foetus  is 
affected  by  the  presence  of  a  mass  of  very  cold  matter  in  the  stom- 
ach of  the  ewe,  but  that  there  is  an  irritation  produced  in  the  in- 
testines by  this  unacceptable  food,  which  causes  the  death  and  ex- 
pulsion of  the  foetus.  '  Nothing  of  the  kind  has  occurred  in  flocks 
that  have  been  largely  fed  on  cooked  roots,  supplied  at  such  a 
temperature  that  would  prevent  a  chill  to  the  animal.  It  may, 
therefore,  be  understood  that  it  is  the  low  temperature,  generally 
near  freezing,  and  often  below  it,  at  which  the  roots  are  given, 
and  nothing  in  the  roots  themselves  that  act  thus  injuriously. 


FEEDING  VALUE   OF   BOOTS. 


63 


Knowing  this,  the  ill  effect  likely  to  be  produced,  may  easily  be 
avoided. 

The  roots  that  are  generally  fed  to  sheep  are  sugar  beets,  man- 
gels, ruta-bagas,  yellow  turnips,  and  white  or  cow-horn  turnips,  and 
are  to  be  preferred  hi  the  order  in  which  they  are  here  enumer- 
ated. Their  comparative  nutritive  value  may  be  gathered  from 
the  following  table,  the  estimates  hi  which  are  from  analyses  by 
Drs.  Voelcker  and  Lankester  : 


TABLE  OF  THE  NUTKITIVE  ELEMENTS  OF  BOOTS. 


IN   100   PARTS  OF 

1 

fl 

^ 

§ 

I 

k 

Sugar  Beets 

81  5 

1  00 

15  40 

1  3 

on 

87  78 

1  54 

8  60 

1  12 

96 

Kuta-bagas  

89  40 

1  44 

5  93 

2  54 

62 

Yellow  Aberdeen  Turnips  

90  57 

1  80 

464 

2  34 

65 

White  Globe  Turnip.  .  .  . 

90.43 

1.14 

2.96 

2.00 

1.02 

Considering  the  large  quantity  of  water  contained  in  them,  roots 
may  be  considered  as  highly  nutritious  food,  and  when  fed  hi  con- 
junction with  dry  fodder,  and  in  proper  proportions,  are  greatly 
conducive  to  the  health  and  growth  of  the  sheep.  Their  effect 
upon  the  quality  of  the  wool,  especially  the  lustrous  wool  of  some 
of  the  long-wool  sheep,  is  very  favorable.  The  proper  quantity 
of  roots  to  be  given  depends  upon  the  kind  of  sheep.  As  a 
safe  guide,  it  may  be  estimated  that  one  bushel  of  roots  will  be  a 
sufficient  daily  allowance  for  10  sheep  weighing  150  Ibs.  each,  live 
weight,  if  along  with  the  roots,  \\  Ib.  of  hay  and  £  Ib.  of  meal  or 
bran  per  head  be  given.  The  question  of  food  rations  will,  how- 
ever, be  considered  at  length  in  another  place. 

Grain,  or  preparations  of  grain  of  various  kinds,  furnish  the 
concentrated  foods,  which  are  found  needful  to  maintain  sheep  in 
a  healthful  condition,  or  to  induce  rapid  growth  and  fattening  for 
market.  These  foods  exist  in  abundant  variety,  but  no  one  alone 
can  be  fed  with  the  greatest  benefit  for  any  length  of  time.  A 
change  of  food  is  both  acceptable  to,  and  healthful  for  sheep,  and 
the  difference  in  the  money  value  of  these  articles  of  food,  which 
exists  at  nearly  all  times,  makes  it  necessary  to  exercise  a  judi- 
cious choice  hi  this  respect,  in  order  to  secure  the  greatest  profit. 
The  feeding  value  of  these  various  substances  used  as  whiter  feed 
for  sheep,  varies  greatly,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  following  table : 


64 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


COMPARATIVE     NUTRITIVE     VALUES     OP     GRAINS    AND     GRAIN 
PRODUCTS. 


IN   100   PARTS   OF 

I 

Fleshform- 
ers. 

^ 
1 

i 

\ 

Corn  

14.4 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.5 
14.0 
8.3 
11.0 
11.5 
13.1 
12.5 
11.65 
8.0 
4.2 
t  Of  this 

10.0 
12.0 
9.0 
22.4 
11.0 
25.5 
9.0 
41.0 
40.00 
28.3 
14.0 
14.5 
11.75 
23.0 
8.8 
11  per  c 

68.8 
60.9 
65.9 
52.3 
69.2 
45.5 
59.6 
*33.4 
t38.5 
41.3 
50.0 
53.5 
64.42 
44.7 
76.3 
ent  consi 

5.5 
10.3 
8.5 
9.2 
3.5 
11.5 
15.0 
9.0 
4.5 
11.0 
17.8 
15.0 
8.29 
17.5 
8.0 
stsoffat 

2.1 
3.0 
2.5 
2.5 
2  0 
3.5 
2.4 
8.3 
6.0 
7.9 
6.1 
4.5 
4.2 
6.8 
2.7 
and  oil. 

Oats    

Barley 

Peas  

Rye    

Beans 

Buckwheat  

Cotton-seed-cake  without  husks  
Peanut  Cake.  

Linseed  Cake  

Bran   (Wheat) 

Bran   (Rye) 

Snorts,  (Wheat)  

Malt  Sprouts 

*  Of  this  16  per  cent  consists  of  oil. 

The  analyses  here  given,  however,  are  but  an  obscure  guide  as 
regards  the  comparative  values  of  the  different  substances  for  pro- 
ducing fat.  It  is  very  important  to  arrive  at  a  clear  idea  of  this 
in  feeding  sheep,  because  the  quality  of  the  wool  depends  greatly 
upon  the  secretion  of  a  requisite  amount  of  yolk  which  consists  in 
great  part  of  oil  and  a  matter  approaching  in  character  to  wax, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  desirability  of  rapidly  producing  fat.  The 
fat-forming  elements  in  any  article  of  food  consist  of  starch,  sugar, 
gum,  oil,  and  fat,  all  carbonaceous  matters,  or  matters  rich  in  car- 
bon, with  the  addition  of  certain  proportions  of  hydrogen  and 
oxygen.  The  chemical  composition  of  these  elements  is  very  sim- 
ilar, and  in  some  of  them  is  nearly  identical.  Thus  an  animal  fed 
upon  starch  or  sugar,  may  become  fat,  and  it  is  well  known  that 
bees  fed  upon  sugar  are  able  to  produce  either  honey  or  wax  from 
this  food.  In  the  processes  of  digestion  and  assimilation,  starch, 
sugar,  and  gum,  are  changed  to  fat.  This  fat  is  either  consumed 
in  the  process  of  respiration,  or  is  stored  up  in  the  tissues  of  the 
body,  and  increases  the  weight  of  the  carcass.  But  in  the  con- 
sumption of  food  rich  hi  starch,  a  much  larger  portion  is  necessary 
to  produce  a  given  weight  of  fat,  or  a  given  result  in  the  process 
of  respiration,  than  is  required  of  a  food  rich  in  fat  or  oil.  The 
relative  values  of  fat  or  oil,  and  starch,  as  nutritive  elements,  is  as 
one  of  the  former  to  two  and  a  half,  nearly,  of  the  latter,  or  exact- 
ly, as  10  is  to  24 ;  that  is,  10  Ibs.  of  oil  or  fat  will  go  as  far  in  pro- 
ducing fat  or  in  maintaining  respiration,  and  the  natural  heat  of 


SELECTION  OF  FOOD.  65 

the  body,  in  which  process  carbon  is  used  up,  as  24  Ibs.  of  starch 
or  sugar.  Thus  any  food  that  contains  10  per  cent  of  fat  is  of  equal 
value  to  another  which  contains  24  per  cent  of  starch.  On  ref- 
erence to  the  table  it  will  be  found  that  corn  contains  68.8  per 
cent  of  fat  formers,  while  cotton-seed-cake  contains  only  33  per 
cent.  But  corn  contains  5  per  cent  of  fat,  and  cotton-seed-cake 
16  per  cent.  The  relative  values  of  the  two  substances  will 
therefore  be  as  follows: 

Starch,  Fat,  \  Equivalent  Total 

Sugar,  etc.          or   |   to  Starch.  Fat-formers. 

Corn 63.8  5.0  or      12.0  75.8 

Cotton-seed-meal 17.5  16.   or     38.4  55.9 

If  the  quantities  of  flesh-forming  elements  of  each  are  added  to 
the  above  totals,  it  will  be  seen  that  cotton-seed-cake  having  four 
times  as  much  flesh- formers  as  corn,  is  the  cheaper  food  of  the 
two.  Again,  whole  flax-seed  contains  55  per  cent  of  fat-form- 
ing elements,  but  as  37  per  cent  of  these  consists  of  oil,  which  is 
equivalent  to  88.8  per  cent  of  starch,  the  total  fat-forming  power 
of  flax-seed  is  therefore  equal  relatively  to  106.8  per  cent  hi  pure 
starch.  Cotton-seed  free  from  the  husk,  and  flax-seed,  are  there- 
fore the  most  nutritive  articles  of  feed  for  fattening.  It  is  worth 
while  here  to  call  attention  to  the  high  value  of  the  peanut  after 
the  oil  is  expressed,  as  food  for  stock  animals  we  possess.  As  a 
substitute  for  oil-cake-meal  where  it  cannot  be  procured  conve- 
niently, the  following  mixture  has  been  suggested,  viz : 

Ground  Linseed 40  Ibs. 

Wheat  Bran 60  " 

Flour  ol  Bone 4  "  —104  Ibs. 

The  constituents  of  which  per  100  Ibs.  are : 

Flesh-formers,  (albumen) 27  Ibs. 

Fat-formers,  (fat  11  pei  cent) 51  " 

Ash  or  Saline  Matter 7  " 

Water 15  "  —100  Ibs. 

This  makes  a  most  valuable  combination  of  feeding  substances  for 
a  young  growing  animal,  or  a  ewe  giving  milk.  The  greater  nu- 
tritive value  of  fat  is  explained  by  physiologists  from  the  fact  that 
it  is  directly  digested  and  assimilated,  and  enters  into  the  circula- 
tion and  nutrition  of  the  animal  without  change,  except  a  very 
fine  mechanical  division  of  its  particles.  On  the  other  hand,  starch 
and  sugar  undergo  a  series  of  chemical  transformations  in  the 
course  of  which  much  of  their  volume  and  effect  are  expended. 

In  choosing  a  variety  of  food  then,  for  a  special  object,  as  for 
instance  the  feeding  of  a  young  growing  animal ;  or  the  fattening 
of  a  mature  animal  and  the  sustenance  of  a  sheep  that  produces  a 


66  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

fleece  rich  in  oil  or  yolk,  as  that  of  a  pure-bred  Merino,  those 
foods  which  would  furnish  abundant  flesh  should  be  chosen  for  the 
one,  and  those  rich  in  starch  and  oil  for  the  others.  By  thus 
choosing  judiciously  and  skillfully,  there  is  an  economy  in  the  cost 
of  the  food,  and  the  object  sought  is  gained  at  the  least  expense. 

Much  may  be  gained  by  varying  or  mixing  the  food  of  an  ani- 
mal so  as  to  stimulate  the  appetite ;  for  a  healthy  animal  will  in- 
crease in  weight  in  proportion  to  the  food  consumed  so  long  as  di- 
gestion and  assimilation  are  perfect.  If  a  sheep  only  eat  3  Ibs. 
of  hay  per  day,  but  will  eat  and  digest  in  addition  6  Ibs.  of  sliced 
turnips  or  beets,  with  a  pound  of  bran  sprinkled  upon  them,  a 
manifest  advantage  is  gained.  If  changing  the  hay  for  straw,  10 
Ibs.  of  turnips  and  1  Ib.  of  bran  or  oil-cake-meal  can  be  consumed, 
the  money  value  of  the  food  may  be  reduced,  and  the  sheep  be 
equally  well  fed. 

In  estimating  the  amount  of  a  sheep's  food,  it  is  necessary  to 
take  into  consideration  the  age  and  condition  of  the  animal. 
Whether  it  be  in  a  growing  state  or  in  a  state  of  maturity,  its 
weight,  and  also  the  drain  upon  its  vitality,  as  in  the  case  of  a  rani 
serving  a  number  of  ewes  daily ;  or  a  ewe  in  lamb,  or  suckling  a 
lamb  or  a  pair  of  them.  On  this  account  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  grade  the  flock  and  provide  different  quarters  for  those  which 
need  special  f ceding  or  care.  As  a  guide  for  the  estimation  of  a 
proper  quantity  of  food,  and  for  a  judicious  selection  of  the  kinds 
which  may  be  fed,  it  will  be  useful  to  consider  the  following 
instances. 

In  an  experiment  recently  made  by  Dr.  Voelcker,  the  chemist 
of  the  Koyal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  four  sheep 
were  fed  for  seven  weeks  upon  196  Ibs.  of  clover  hay,  49  Ibs.  of 
linseed-cake-meal,  and  3,743  Ibs.  of  mangels ;  equal  to  a  daily  ra- 
tion for  each  of  1  Ib.  of  clover  hay,  4  ounces  of  linseed-cake-meal, 
and  19|  Ibs.  of  mangels. 

The  nutritive  elements  contained  in  this  daily  ration  were  equiva- 
lent to  4i  ounces  of  flesh  formers,  53£  ounces  of  fat  formers,  and 
4f  ounces  of  mineral  matter. 

Upon  this  mixed  diet  the  sheep  thrived  and  gained  weight  as 
follows : 

Weight  at  Weight  at  Gain  in 

commencement.  end  of  7  weeks.  weight. 

No.l 153  Ibs.  1701/4  Ibs.  17V4  Ibs. 

No.  2 334  «  151V4  "  I7'/*  " 

No  3 1W  "  187      "  17      « 

No  4..  135"  155      "  20      " 


EXPERIMENTS  IN  FEEDING.  67 

The  gain  on  the  average  was  equal  to  one  pound  in  three  days ; 
or  an  increase  in  weight  of  one  pound  for  every  56  Ibs.  of  food 
fed  ;  or  for  every  62  ounces  of  dry  matter  contained  in  the  food. 
This  is  a  very  good  instance  of  a  typical  fattening  food  for  an  or- 
dinary sheep  of  this  size.  The  results  of  a  large  number  of  exper- 
iments made  in  feeding  roots  to  sheep,  go  to  show  that  150  Ibs.  of 
ruta-bagas*,  or  mangels,  fed  in  open  yards,  or  100  Ibs.  fed  in  yards 
with  sheds  for  protection,  may  be  expected  to  produce  one  pound 
of  increase  in  live  weight.  When  1|  Ibs.  of  a  mixed  feed  of  oil- 
cake and  peas  were  given  daily,  along  with  18£  Ibs.  of  ruta-bagas, 
fed  under  shelter,  the  gain  was  equal  to  2  Ibs.  for  every  100  Ibs.  of 
roots,  and  4£  Ibs.  of  mixed  peas  and  oil-cake ;  showing  that  4£  Ibs. 
of  peas  and  oil-cake  produced  an  increase  of  one  pound  in  the  live 
weight.  A  number  of  experiments  in  feeding  clover  hay  with 
linseed-oil-cake-meal,  have  established  the  fact  that,  allowing  6  Ibs. 
of  oil-cake-meal  for  one  pound  of  increased  live  weight,  it  required 
11  to  13  Ibs.  of  hay  to  make  an  equal  gain.  In  feeding  peas  and 
beans  with  roots  and  hay,  8  Ibs.  of  the  mixed  grain  was  found  to 
produce  an  increase  in  weight  of  one  pound.  When  oats  were  fed 
with  the  roots,  there  was  one  pound  of  increased  weight  for  7  Ibs. 
of  the  grain.  When  barley  was  substituted,  6  Ibs.  of  the  gram 
produced  a  gain  of  one  pound.  These  interesting  experiments  are 
recorded  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  Vol. 
I,  p.  169;  Vol.  VII,  p.  295;  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  27,  28,  and  256;  Vol. 
X,  p.  358,  and  the  Highland  Society's  Transactions ;  and  are  sub- 
stantiated by  experiments  made  by  Messrs.  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  of 
Rothamstead,  in  which  they  found  that  272£  Ibs.  oil-cake,  252£ 
Ibs.  clover  hay,  and  3,753  Ibs.  ruta-bagas,  fed  together,  produced 
100  Ibs.  of  increase.  These  results  must  of  course  be  accepted  as 
subject  to  variations  in  the  quality  of  the  various  feeds,  the  kind 
and  condition  of  the  sheep,  the  state  of  comfort  and  repose  in 
which  they  are  kept,  and  the  care  and  attention  given  to  them. 
But  making  every  allowance  for  contingencies,  it  may  be  safe  to 
estimate  from  these  results,  that  the  relative  quantities  of  the  differ- 
ent feeds  required  to  produce  one  pound  of  flesh,  are  as  follows 

Ruta-bagas  fed  in  open  yards 150  Ibs 

Ruta-bagas  fed  under  cover 100  "  ' 

Good  clover  hay 12  " 

Beans  or  peas !!!!"""    8  " 


Oats 

Barley ........".."."/.!".!! 

Linseed-oil-cake-meal ] 

Linseed-oil-cake-meal,  and  peas  mixed , 


7 


The  last  quantity  mentioned,  curiously  enough  corroborates  the 


68 

personal  experience  of  many  shepherds,  and  the  remark  heretofore 
made  to  the  effect  that  much  is  often  gained  by  varying  or  mixing 
the  diet  of  sheep.  In  this  instance  the  same  effect  is  gained  by  the 
use  of  three-fourths  the  quantity  of  the  mixed  feed,  as  by  the 
whole  quantity  when  given  separately.  The  actual  money  cost  of 
the  feed  may  thus  be  estimated  nearly  enough  for  all  practical 
purposes.  In  estimating  the  values  of  the  kinds  of  food  more 
commonly  used  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  there  are  but 
few  really  trustworthy  data  to  depend  upon,  as  the  careful  experi- 
mental feeding  of  animals  for  scientific  information,  has  rarely 
been  attempted.  We  have  nevertheless  amongst  the  current  agri- 
cultural literature  of  the  day,  many  recorded  results  contributed 
by  careful  and  eminently  capable  and  trustworthy  men.  From 
amongst  these  the  following  have  been  selected  as  being  practical 
and  to  the  purpose.  In  an  article  communicated  to  the  Country 
Gentleman,  by  the  Hon.  George  Geddes,  of  Fairmount,  N.  Y.,  in 
May,  1875,  are  given,  the  cost  of  feeding,  and  the  gain  in  weight  of 
290  sheep  fed  by  Mr.  O.  M.  Watkins,  of  Onondaga  County,  during 
the  previous  winter,  and  particularly  the  cost,  etc.,  during  the 
month  of  January.  The  flock  consisted  of  100  grades,  being  half 
Merino  and  half  Cotswold ;  another  100  that  were  Merinos,  and  90 
were  called  full-blooded  Cotswolds,  (probably  high  grades).  All 
these  sheep  were  fed  alike,  each  having  one  pound  of  corn  daily 
— half  of  it  fed  early  hi  the  morning,  the  other  half  at  sunset. 
Straw  and  chaff  were  fed  during  the  day,  and  one  feeding  of  hay 
at  night.  The  corn  was  worth  80  cents  for  60  pounds,  the  hay  $10 
a  ton.  The  quantity  of  hay  fed  was  reported  as  equal  to  1.3 
pounds  to  each  sheep  per  day — making  40  pounds  for  the  month, 
worth  20  cents.  The  corn  for  the  same  time  was  worth  41  cents, 
making  the  cost  of  corn  and  hay  for  each  sheep  for  the  month, 
61  cents. 

The  100  Merino  and  Cotswold  grades  increased  from  117£lbs.  each 
to  128J  pounds,  this  being  a  gain  for  each  sheep  of  10£  pounds,  and 
making  the  cost  of  each  pound  5.67  cents.  The  100  Merinos  weighed 
Jan.  1, 94J  pounds  each,  and  Feb.  1, 101^  pounds— gaining  7£  pounds 
each,  at  a  cost  of  8.4  cents.  The  100  so-called  full-blooded  Cots- 
wolds  weighed  118  pounds  each  Jan.  1,  and  Feb.  1, 123J — gaming 
only  5J  pounds  each,  at  a  cost  of  11.6  cents  per  pound.  Upon 
these  facts,  Mr.  Geddes  comments  as  follows :  "  The  manure  made 
during  the  time  by  these  sheep,  I  consider  worth  more  than  the 
manure  that  would  have  been  made  by  the  same  number  of  pounds 
of  beef  cattle.  Thirty-two  steers,  each  weighing  1,000  pounds, 
would  almost  exactly  equal  the  total  number  of  pounds  of  these 


PBOFIT  IN  FEEDING.  69 

three  flocks  of  sheep  when  they  were  weighed  in  the  yards  on  the 
1st  day  of  January.  All  the  labor  involved  in  feeding  and  taking 
care  of  the  sheep,  would  not  equal  that  of  cleaning  the  stables  for 
the  steers.  Mr.  Watkins  purchased  the  290  sheep  well,  and  sold 
them  well,  and  he  reports  his  winter's  doings  with  them  as  follows : 

Cost  of  290  sheep,  (nearly  4c.  per  lb.), $1,260  61 

do.    435  bushels  of  corn,  at  80c 34800 

do.      13  tons  of  hay,  $10 13000    $1,73861 

Feb.  28th,  sold  270  at  $8  each 2 160  00 

do.         do.    18  culls,  $4  each 7200 

Two  sheep  got  cast ;  sold  pelts  for  $2  each.         4  00 


"  This  pays  over  $1.71  for  the  trouble  of  buying  and  selling  and 
risk  on  each  sheep,  if  we  call  the  manure  pay  for  the  labor  of  caring 
for  the  sheep.  The  price  of  hay  is  here  very  low  this  season,  but 
corn  is  very  high.  Straw  and  chaff  we  consider  as  of  but  little 
value  for  manure,  unless  worked  over  by  the  feet  of  some  animal, 
and  used  as  an  absorbent  for  their  manure.  For  this  reason  we 
credit  the  sheep  with  the  work  of  converting  a  large  quantity  of 
straw  and  chaff  into  available  food  for  plants. 

"  I  do  not  give  Mr.  Watkins'  experience  as  an  average,  for  it  is 
far  better  than  any  average  that  he  can  make  for  a  series  of  years. 
Nor  do  I  think  it  is  by  any  means  conclusive  as  between  the 
breeds  of  sheep  that  he  fed.  The  grade  Merino  and  Cotswold  I 
sold  him  the  21st  day  of  last  December.  They  were  all  ewes,  2 
and  3  years  old,  and  were  a  very  even,  and  in  all  respects  a  desira- 
ble lot.  The  other  flocks  I  did  not  see,  but  I  suppose,  from  in- 
formation, that  they  were  not  so  even  or  desirable,;  and  sheep  here 
usually  called  full-blooded  Cotswolds,  come  from  Canada  or  the 
border,  and  are  not  very  good,  perhaps  they  are  mostly  the  culls 
of  the  flocks  they  came  from.  After  all  reasonable  allowances 
have  been  made,  the  lesson  of  this  winter's  work  of  Mr.  Watkins 
is  certainly  that  sheep  are  much  more  profitable  makers  of  meat 
than  steers,  such  as  can  be  bought  hi  Buffalo  in  the  fall  of  the  year, 
and  they  are  still  better  manufacturers  of  straw  and  other  coarse 
forage  into  manure." 

Both  the  facts  here  given,  and  the  relator's  comments,  are  very 
valuable.  From  the  statement  as  to  feed  and  gain  hi  weight,  the 
following  deductions  as  to  the  value  of  the  corn  fed  for  producing 
increase  of  weight,  may  be  made.  Taking  the  three  flocks,  we 
have  the  following  results  for  each,  accepting  the  feeding  value  of 
hay  as  previously  given,  as  a  basis  for  a  portion  of  the  increase: 


70  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

GRADE  MERINO  AND  COTSWOLD,  AVERAGE  GAIN,   10f  LBS. 

Feed  consumed.        Gain  in  weight.  Ibs.  of  feed  for  1  Ib.  of  gain. 

40  Ibs.  of  hay.               8y4  Ibs.  12  Ibs. 

30  Ibs.  of  corn.              ?ya  Iks.  4  Ibs. 

MEBINOS,    AVERAGE    GAIN,    71/*    LBS. 

Feed  consumed.        Gain  in  weight.         Ibs.  of  feed  for  1  Ib.  of  gain. 
40  Ibs.  hay.  8y4  Iks.  13  Ibs. 

30  Ibs.  corn.  4     Ibs.  ?ya  Ibs. 

COTSWOLDS,  AVERAGE  GAIN,  5y4  LBS. 

Feed  consumed.        Gain  in  weight.         Ibs.  of  feed  for  1  Ib.  of  gain. 
40  Ibs.  hay.  8i/4  Ibs.  13  Ibs. 

30  Ibs.  corn.  2    Ibs.  15  Ibs. 

These  different  flocks  were  evidently  uneven  in  quality,  and  as 
Mr.  Geddes,  who  sold  the  first  flock  to  Mr.  Watkins,  is  an  excellent 
and  experienced  farmer  and  stock  feeder,  it  may  easily  be  sup- 
posed that  the  sheep  were  in  excellent  condition  and  well  pre- 
pared for  fattening.  The  productive  value  of  corn,  in  the  case  of 
this  flock,  may  well  be  considered  as  exaggerated,  as  in  the  other 
instances  it  would  be  diminished  by  reason  of  the  poorer  quality 
of  the  sheep.  A  mean  may  therefore  be  taken,  and  the  gain  result- 
ing from  feeding  the  corn  estimated  as  between  the  two  gains 
of  4  and  7-J-,  thus  giving  an  average  of  about  6  Ibs. ,  and  bringing 
corn  to  an  equality  of  value  with  barley  or  linseed  cake,  if  not 
showing  it  to  be  superior  to  either.  If  the  result  of  feeding  the 
first  flock  be  taken  as  the  basis  for  the  estimate,  it  would  certainly 
show  corn  to  be  a  feed  of  the  highest  value  for  fattening  sheep ; 
but  one  result  can  hardly  serve  as  a  basis  upon  which  to  found 
such  a  rule.  Mr.  R  J.  Swan,  of  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  in  a  communica- 
tion in  the  Third  Vol.  of  Rural  Affairs,  stated  his  plan  of  winter 
feeding ;  he  gives  to  each  hundred  fattening  sheep,  two  bushels, 
(126  Ibs.),  of  corn,  or  the  same  quantity  of  oil-cake-meal  per  day, 
with  wheat  straw  in  racks  three  times  a  day,  up  to  the  1st  day  of 
March  ;  afterwards  feeding  hay  instead  of  straw,  and  reducing  the 
corn  or  oil-cake-meal  one-half.  The  lambs  are  fed  hay  three  times 
a  day,  with  three  pecks  of  oil-cake-meal,  or  corn-meal,  per  100.  It 
is  to  be  presumed  that  hay  is  fed  ad  libitum,  although  this  account 
would  have  been  more  satisfactory  had  the  quantity  fed  been 
stated.  In  a  prize  essay  by  Mr.  Jurian  Winne,  of  Albany  County, 
N.  Y.,  the  following  hints  for  the  winter  feeding  of  sheep  are 
given  :  "  By  feeding  liberally  with  roots,  and  not  too  much  gram, 
during  the  first  week  at  least,  the  change  from  green  feed  to  dry 
will  be  less  apt  to  affect  the  sheep.  In  feeding,  unless  a  person 
can  do  it  himself,  which  is  very  seldom  the  case,  the  feeder  should 


METHOD  OF  WINTER  FEEDING.          71 

be  instructed  with  great  care,  how  much  gram  is  to  go  to  each 
yard  or  stable  according  to  the  animals  it  contains.  An  over-feed 
at  the  commencement  is  almost  sure  to  bring  on  the  scours,  and 
after  the  sheep  are  over  it,  it  will  take  at  least  two  weeks'  good 
feeding  to  put  them  where  they  started  from.  My  mode,  to  avoid 
mistakes,  is  to  number  my  yards  and  stables,  and  count  the  sheep 
in  each  yard  and  stable — allowing  to  each  sheep  one-half  pint  of 
gram  per  day  to  start  with,  unless  they  have  been  fed  grain  pre- 
viously, when  I  allow  a  little  more.  I  then  make  out  a  schedule 
thus  :  No.  1 — 60  sheep  at  one-half  pint  per  day  is  15  quarts,  which 
divided  into  two  feeds,  is  7£  quarts  to  a  feed ;  so  I  write  on  the 
schedule,  *  No.  1—60  sheep  must  have  7J-  quarts  at  a  feed  morning 
and  night,' — No.  2  at  the  same  rate  according  to  number,  and  so 
on  until  I  get  them  all.  This  paper  is  tacked  up  in  the  place 
where  the  feed  is  kept,  and  by  going  with  the  feeder  a  few  tunes 
to  show  him  and  see  that  he  makes  no  mistakes,  if  he  is  a  good 
man  he  can  do  it  as  well  as  the  farmer  himself.  As  soon  as  the 
feed  is  to  be  increased,  a  new  schedule  is  made  out  accordingly, 
and  so  on,  until  the  sheep  are  fed  one  quart  each  per  day,  when  I 
consider  them  on  full  feed,  especially  if  the  feed  is  corn,  beans,  or 
oil-meal,  or  a  mixture  of  either.  If  oats  or  buckwheat  compose 
part  of  their  feed,  they  should  have  a  little  more.  Regularity  of 
hours  is  very  important.  Sheep  should  not  be  fed  one  morning  at 
five  o'clock,  the  next  at  six,  and  the  third  at  seven.  Our  rule  is 
this :  Grain  and  oil-meal  are  fed  at  half-past  five  A.M.  As  soon  as 
the  grain  is  finished,  hay  is  given — no  more  than  the  sheep  will 
eat  clean.  The  different  yards  and  stables  are  carefully  fed  each 
day  in  the  same  order,  which  is  important  to  avoid  confusion  and 
mistakes — beginning  with  No.  1,  and  so  on  through  the  list. 
After  breakfast,  water  is  given,  going  around  twice  to  see  that  all 
are  well  supplied.  The  roots  are  next  cut,  (ruta-bagas,  which  I 
consider  best),  and  of  these  to  my  present  stock  of  about  350  sheep, 
I  am  now  feeding  10  bushels  a  day.  At  eleven  o'clock  straw  is 
fed.  Twelve  is  the  dinner  hour,  and  immediately  after  dinner  the 
roots  are  fed.  The  troughs  and  tubs  are  now  all  examined,  and 
replenished  with  water  if  necessary — also  salt,  salt  and  ashes, 
browse,  litter,  and  anything  else  that  may  be  needed,  is  supplied. 
The  evening  and  next  morning's  feeds  of  grain  and  oil-meal  are 
next  prepared,  and  hay  got  ready  for  both  night  and  morning. 
At  4  P.M.  feeding  the  gram  is  again  commenced,  followed  as  before 
by  hay,  after  which  the  water  tubs  and  troughs  are  emptied  and 
turned  over,  and  the  work  is  finished  for  the  night." 
The  value  of  roots  for  winter  feeding  is  very  inadequately  esti- 


72 

mated  in  the  United  States,  but  it  may  be  well  questioned  if  a  flock 
of  sheep  can  be  profitably  or  successfully  kept  without  them.  A 
certain  portion  of  water  must  be  taken  with  the  food  every  day. 
The  more  intimately  this  is  mixed  with  the  food,  the  better  for  the 
digestive  process.  In  feeding  12  Ibs.  of  roots  to  a  sheep  80  to  90 
per  cent,  or  4J  to  5  qts.  of  water  are  given  in  "them.  By  the  pro- 
cess of  mastication  the  water  is  intimately  mixed  with  the  solid 
matter,  and  a  semi-liquid  pulp  is  formed  exactly  fitted  for  the  ru- 
minative and  digestive  processes  of  the  stomach.  By  cutting  or 
pulping  the  roots,  and  sprinkling  or  mixing  the  ration  of  meal, 
bran,  or  grain,  upon  or  with  them,  the  whole  food  reaches  the 
stomach  in  the  most  appropriate  condition  possible.  Digestion 
proceeds  uniformly,  the  stomach  does  not  need  to  be  supplied 
with  a  large  quantity  of  water  at  any  time,  and  its  solvent  juices 
are  not  diluted  and  weakened.  The  bowels  act  regularly,  and 
constipation,  one  of  the  most  troublesome  disorders  of  the  flock 
when  on  dry  food,  is  avoided  and  prevented.  But  the  daily  ration 
of  roots  must  be  apportioned  with  care  and  judgment.  For  lambs 
5  to  6  Ibs.  daily  will  be  sufficient ;  for  two-year-olds  and  mature 
sheep,  10  to  15  Ibs.  will  be  an  ample  allowance  ;  the  smaller  quan- 
tity being  enough  for  a  Southdown,  and  the  larger  for  a  full  grown 
Cotswold,  Leicester,  or  Lincoln.  For  a  Merino  a  much  less 
quantity  should  be  apportioned,  as  this  breed  cannot  produce  a 
fleece  of  good  quality,  or  great  weight,  without  being  supplied  with 
enough  oily  matter  to  secrete  the  large  amount  of  yolk  which  their 
fleece  contains. 

Of  all  the  roots  usually  grown,  the  sugar-beet  is  the  best  for 
sheep,  being  the  most  palatable,  and  containing  the  greatest  pro- 
portion of  solid  nutritious  matter.  For  every  100  sheep  to  be  fed 
with  roots  at  the  rate  of  ten  pounds  per  head  per  day,  during  the 
feeding  season  of  5  months,  about  4  acres  devoted  to  this  crop  will 
be  required,  yielding  about  18  tons,  or  550  to  600  bushels  per  acre. 
This  is  a  small  estimate,  and  only  half  the  yield  of  a  good  or  a 
possible  crop,  but  is  near  that  of  our  average  crops.  The  amount 
of  food  necessary  to  keep  a  sheep  in  good  thrifty  condition  has 
been  determined  to  be  15  pounds  of  actually  dry  substance  per 
week  for  each  100  Ibs.  of  live  weight.  As  grain  and  hay  contain 
about  14  per  cent  of  water,  this  allowance  will  be  equal  to  about 
18  Ibs.  of  hay  or  grain,  or  nearly  3  Ibs.  per  day.  But  as  for  the 
perfect  digestion  of  the  food,  a  certain  bulk  is  requisite,  the  mixed 
daily  ration  should  be  composed  of  such  proportions  of  bulky  and 
concentrated  food,  that  7  to  9  pounds  are  required  to  produce  an 
increase  of  one  pound  in  live  weight.  From  the  data  previously 


RAISING   LAMBS  FOR  MARKET.  73 

given,  it  will  not  be  difficult  for  the  intelligent  reader  and  shepherd 
to  arrive  at  a  correct  judgment,  and  conform  his  plan  of  feeding 
to  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  his  flock,  and  with  a  view  to  the 
greatest  profit. 

EARLY    MARKET    LAMBS. 

There  are  some  special  objects  in  the  winter  feeding  of  sheep 
which  require  particular  methods  of  management  to  ensure  suc- 
cess.   In  regard  to  feeding  store  sheep,  and  when  the  chief  object 
is  the  increase  of  the  flock,  and  the  healthful  growth  of  the  fleece, 
nothing  need  be  said  beyond  what  has  been  given  in  the  preced- 
ing pages.     But  special  management  is  needed  for  the  production 
of  early  market  lambs,  and  for  the  fattening  of  sheep  purchased  to 
ensure  profit  both  in  money  and  manure  ;  in  regard  to  these  cases 
some  special  explanation  may  be  pertinent.     The  production  of 
market  lambs,  if  rightly  managed,  may  be  made  very  profitable. 
This  business  maybe  followed  on  a  suitable  farm  anywhere  within 
150  miles  of  a  good  market.    The  markets  for  lambs  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  large  cities,  Washington,  New  York,  Boston,  Phila- 
delphia, Baltimore,  and  Albany  being  the  chief  eastern  markets, 
and  St.  Louis,  Cincinnati,  and  Chicago,  the  chief  western  ones. 
Some  few  of  the  southern  cities  offer  good  markets  for  lambs  early 
in  the  spring.    April,  May,  and  June  are  the  months  when  the 
prices  are  the  most  remunerative  ;  after  June  the  prices  per  pound 
for  lambs  are  but  little  more  than  those  for  sheep.    In  April  and 
May,  a  lamb  weighing  40  pounds  will  often  sell  for  $10.     Those 
farmers  who  make  the  raising  of  early  lambs  a  special  business, 
follow  one  of  two  methods.    In  one  case  they  keep  a  permanent 
flock  of  ewes,  selected  for  their  good  character  as  nurses  and 
milkers,  quiet  in  disposition,  docile,  and  easily  managed,  and  ready 
to  act  as  foster  mothers  to  other  lambs  whose  mothers  have 
been  sent  away.    The  other  plan  is  to  purchase,  late  in  the  sum- 
mer, a  flock  of  ewes,  as  well  selected  as  may  be,  from  which  to 
raise  a  crop  of  spring  lambs  ;  the  ewes  are  then  shorn,  and  after- 
wards fattened  and  sent  to  market  before  the  year  is  complete. 
Which  of  these  two  methods  would  be  the  best  to  adopt  depends 
upon  circumstances.     The  first  plan  needs  for  its  successful  opera- 
tion a  farm  suitable  for  pasturing  sheep,  or  which  has  at  least 
sufficient  suitable  summer  pasture  for  the  flock.     For  the  second 
plan  little  or  no  pasture  is  required ;   a  rough  field  in  which  the 
ewes  may  run  while  being  fed  for  market,  or  a  run  upon  the  clover 
sod  to  be  plowed  for  corn  in  May,  being  all  that  is  required.    A 
4 


74  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

stock  of  ruta-bagas,  which  keep  in  excellent  condition  until  June, 
if  needed  so  long,  is  provided  as  a  substitute  for  grass  while  the 
ewes  are  being  fattened.  This  latter  plan  is  well  suited  as  an 
additional  industry  upon  grain  or  dairy  farms,  in  which  some 
additional  capital  may  be  turned  over  with  a  prospect  of  its  being 
returned  in  less  than  a  year  with  a  gain  of  100  per  cent  in  money, 
besides  a  valuable  addition  to  the  manure  heap. 

The  selection  of  ewes  and  a  ram  from  which  to  raise  market 
lambs,  is  the  chief  point  for  consideration,  the  wool  being  a  sec- 
ondary object.  The  form  of  the  sheep  and  their  temperament  are 
the  first  points  to  be  regarded  in  their  selection ;  but  if  the  flock  is 
to  be  kept  permanently,  it  is  best  to  procure  sheep  which  will 
yield  a  good  fleece  as  well  as  a  good  lamb,  as  this  will  add  to  the 
profit.  Single  lambs  of  good  size,  are  more  profitable  than  twins, 
which  will  generally  be  of  smaller  growth.  It  matters  little 
about  the  breed,  as  this  is  not  a  point  with  the  marketmen,  although 
a  black-faced  Southdown  is  most  in  favor  with  them,  because  of 
its  usual  plumpness  and  fatness.  A  lamb  from  a  grade  Merino 
ewe,  and  a  Southdown  or  Shropshire  ram,  is  fat  at  any  age,  and  is 
soon  ripe  for  market,  and  will  sell  better  than  a  larger  lamb  that 
is  more  bony  and  less  plump.  A  cross  from  a  grade  Merino  ewe 
and  a  Cotswold  ram,  is  the  next  best  lamb,  if  not  altogether  as 
good  a  one.  A  large  bodied,  short-legged,  broad  backed,  native 
ewe,  with  some  Merino  and  Southdown  blood  in  her  composition, 
is,  perhaps,  all  things  considered,  the  best  sheep  that  can  be  chosen 
for  a  dam.  A  pure  bred  Southdown,  Shropshire,  or  Cotswold  ram, 
makes  the  best  sire,  the  preference  to  be  given  in  the  order  in 
which  they  are  here  named.  Ewes  that  produce  twins  should  be 
weeded  out  of  the  flock,  and  those  which  bring  a  large  lamb,  and 
have  plenty  of  milk,  and  are  gentle  and  kind  to  their  lambs,  should 
be  kept  as  long  as  they  will  breed.  Ewes  have  been  kept  until  13 
years  old  that  have  yearly  brought  and  raised  a  lamb  to  maturity 
for  market,  without  missing  a  season,  or  losing  a  lamb.  One  ewe 
of  this  kind  may  be  made  to  pay  the  interest  on  $100  each  year, 
and  it  would  be  well  to  raise  the  ewe  lambs  of  such  choice  dams 
to  replenish  the  flock.  Some  ewes  will  raise  twins,  and  by  skill- 
ful management,  a  ewe  whose  lamb  has  been  sold  may  be  made 
to  foster  another  lamb,  or  at  least  be  forced  to  help  feed  it.  If  the 
ewe  shows  any  reluctance  to  adopt  the  strange  lamb,  she  should 
be  confined  hi  a  small  pen,  at  stated  times,  and  the  hungry  lamb 
turned  in  to  her.  The  lamb  will  generally  succeed  in  getting  all 
the  milk  from  her.  If  she  is  more  than  usually  reluctant,  she 
should  be  held  while  the  lamb  sucks,  or  be  confined  hi  stanchions 


CHOOSING  THE  EWES.  75 

(as  described  in  a  previous  chapter),  for  a  time,  until  she  becomes 
reconciled.  The  ewes  thus  made  to  serve  as  foster  mothers  will, 
after  two  or  three  seasons,  accept  the  situation,  and  readily  adopt 
the  second  lamb.  In  some  flocks  a  lamb  has  occasionally  sucked 
three  ewes,  and  in  some  cases,  some  enterprising  lambs  will  forage 
around  and  get  a  meal  from  any  ewe  that  will  permit  it  to  suck. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  curb  the  enterprise  of  such  lambs  occasion- 
ally, lest  they  rob  the  others.  When  a  flock  of  ewes  is  purchased 
each  year,  in  August  or  early  in  September,  they  must  necessarily 
be  picked  up  in  the  most  convenient  manner,  either  from  passing 
droves,  or  some  well  known  drover  may  be  engaged  to  procure 
them.  Fairly  good  ewes  may  generally  be  procured  by  either  of 
these  methods  for  about  $3  per  head.  In  selecting  ewes  from  a 
drove,  care  should  be  taken  to  examine  the  teeth  to  ascertain  their 
age,  and  none  less  than  three  or  four  years  old,  or  what  are  called 
"full  mouthed"  ewes,  should  be  chosen.  The  ram  should  be 
chosen  in  this  case  as  in  the  previous  one.  Whatever  breed  may 
be  selected,  compactness  of  form  and  vigor  should  be  looked  for, 
rather  than  size ;  a  moderate  sized  ram,  with  a  large  roomy  ewe, 
will  produce  a  better  lamb  than  a  pair  of  the  opposite  characters. 
High  condition  in  the  ram  is  not  desirable ;  a  merely  fair  condition 
is  more  conducive  to  certainty  in  getting  lambs ;  nor  in  this  busi- 
ness is  it  best  to  confine  the  ram ;  the  exercise  with  the  flock  being 
better  for  the  animal's  health  than  confinement.  If  the  flock  is 
too  large  for  the  one  ram,  it  should  be  divided  and  separated,  or 
two  rams  used,  each  being  shut  up  on  alternate  days ;  no  more  than 
50  ewes  can  be  served  by  one  ram  in  the  time  during  which  the 
service  is  required — or  at  most  40  to  60  days — for  this  is  the  time 
during  which  the  season  for  selling  lambs  continues.  The  ram 
should  not  be  less  than  three  years  of  age.  As  ewes  go  five  months, 
or  about  150  days  with  young,  those  ewes  that  are  served  in  the  . 
latter  part  of  August  will  have  lambs  in  January,  and  these  lambs, 
without  any  forcing,  can  be  made  marketable  in  April.  All  of  the 
lambs  should  be  dropped  before  the  middle  of  March,  and  it  will 
be  found  advisable  and  convenient  to  so  apportion  the  ewes  to  bo 
served,  that  the  dropping  of  the  lambs  may  be  spread  over  the 
whole  of  this  period  as  regularly  as  possible.  The  presence  of 
dogs  about  a  flock  of  this  character  should  not  be  permitted. 
They  are  not  only  entirely  useless,  but  are  really  an  annoyance  and 
an  injury.  After  the  lamb  is  a  few  days  old,  if  thought  necessary, 
it  may  be  taught  to  suck  some  warmed,  sweetened  cow's  milk,  and 
any  help  to  its  growth,  in  the  shape  of  extra  food,  will  be  useful. 
There  is  danger,  however,  of  over-feeding  a  young  lamb,  which 


76  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

may  be  worse  than  under-feeding  it,  and  caution  is  to  be  exercised 
in  this  respect ;  no  more  should  be  attempted  than  to  encourage  a 
healthy,  thrifty  growth.  After  the  lamb  is  four  weeks  old,  it  may 
be  taught  to  lick  some  fine  bran,  with  a  little  salt  mixed  with  it,  or 
a  little  sifted  oatmeal.  As  a  rule,  it  will  be  safer  to  depend  on 
increasing  and  enriching  the  ewe's  milk,  rather  than  to  force  the 
lamb  to  swallow  food  which  its  stomach  is  not  as  yet  able  to  com- 
pletely digest.  It  is  highly  important  to  prevent  the  lambs  from 
being  annoyed  and  depleted  of  their  blood  by  ticks  or  other  vermin. 
To  this  end  the  ewes  should  be  dipped  in  the  fall  to  rid  them  of 
ticks,  and  if  a  few  should  appear  in  the  spring  upon  the  lambs, 
they  should  be  freed  from  the  insect  pests  by  careful  hand-picking, 


Fig.  28.— PACKING  BOX  FOR  LAMBS. 

repeated  if  necessary.  In  case  the  ticks  should  be  too  numerous 
for  hand-picking,  the  lambs  may  be  dipped.  This  will  be  abso- 
lutely necessary  if  they  are  to  be  kept  until  after  the  ewes  are 
shorn,  as  then  the  ticks  will  leave  the  ewes  on  which  they  are 
unsheltered,  and  seek  refuge  in  the  closer  fleeces  of  the  lambs. 
When  this  happens,  the  growth  of  the  lambs  is  suddenly  stopped, 
and  it  is  often  the  case  that  some  of  them  are  tormented  until  they 
finally  die. 

The  marketing  of  the  lambs  is  one  of  the  most  important  parts 
of  the  business  so  far  as  profits  are  concerned.  As  has  been  said, 
the  early  lambs  bring  the  highest  prices,  but  it  may  be  that  the  later 
lambs  will  be  found  the  most  profitable,  as  being  less  costly  and 
troublesome  to  rear.  When  the  proper  market  has  been  found, 


PROFIT  IX   RAISING   LAMBS.  77 

and  a  trustworthy  commission  agent  to  whom  they  can  be  sent  for 
sale  has  been  selected,  the  method  of  packing  for  shipment  should 
be  well  considered.  A  roomy  box,  in  which  the  lamb  can  stand 
or  lie,  but  cannot  turn  round,  should  be  procured  for  each  lamb. 
Figure  28  represents  a  crate  in  which  the  author  has  shipped  many 
lambs  to  market  without  a  single  case  of  accident  from  any  cause. 
The  size  is  36  inches  long,  24  inches  high,  and  18  inches  wide.  It 
is  made  of  lath  2  inches  wide  by  3  quarters  thick.  The  best  fast- 
ening for  the  top  was  found  to  be  four  pieces  of  soft  twisted  tarred 
hempen  cord  of  the  kind  known  as  lath  twine,  and  used  for  tying 
bundles  of  laths,  at  the  saw  mills.  This  form  of  box  is  also  suit- 
able for  shipping  stock  lambs ;  these  have  been  safely  sent  hi  them 
from  New  York  to  Charleston,  S.  C. ,  and  also  as  far  as  Denver, 
Col.  In  case  of  shipping  to  a  distance,  a  bag  of  feed  is  tied  to  one 
of  the  upper  corners  of  the  box,  containing  sufficient  to  last  through 
the  journey,  and  a  feed  trough  is  fixed  at  each  end  of  the  box,  so 
that  in  case  the  lamb  is  carelessly  put  in  wrong  end  foremost,  or 
happens  to  turn  around,  a  trough  is  ready  for  use  where  it  is 
wanted.  On  the  shipping  card  should  be  plainly  printed  directions 
to  the  express  agent  to  give  half  a  pint  of  feed  and  water  twice  a 
day  to  the  lamb.  Shipments  for  short  distances  should  always 
be  made  by  express,  so  that  there  may  be  no  delays.  The  time  of 
shipment  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  commission  agent  may 
be  on  hand  to  attend  to  the  lambs  on  their  arrival.  For  distances 
of  not  over  100  miles,  the  time  of  travel  is  so  short  that  no  feed  or 
water  is  needed  on  the  way,  but  the  lambs  may  be  fed  lightly 
and  watered  before  they  are  placed  in  the  boxes.  In  this  way  the 
lambs  travel  with  so  little  inconvenience  that  no  loss  of  weight 
occurs,  a  matter  which,  when  the  price  is  25  cents  a  pound,  is 
worth  consideration.  The  business  of  marketing  lambs  is  exten- 
sively carried  on  in  the  neighborhood  of  large  cities  in  the  east, 
and  thousands  of  ewes  are  yearly  purchased  in  Ohio  and  western 
parts  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  by  drovers  from  New  Jersey, 
and  eastern  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania,  in  the  early  fall,  for 
selling  to  farmers  who  keep  them  over  winter,  raise  lambs  the 
next  spring,  and  sell  lamb's  fleeces,  and  the  fattened  sheep  within 
twelve  months,  and  repeat  the  operation  yearly  with  great  profit. 
As  an  illustration  of  what  may  be  done  in  this  way,  the  following 
may  be  cited :  "  Fifty-five  ewes  were  purchased  at  $3  per  head,  and 
until  winter  were  pastured  in  a  rough  field  at  the  rear  of  the  farm, 
where  they  more  than  earned  their  keep  and  care,  by  the  service 
they  performed  in  destroying  weeds.  The  account  for  one  year, 
opened  and  kept  expressly  for  this  flock,  is  as  follows : 


78  THE  SHEPHEKD'S  MANUAL. 

DR. 

Cost  of  55  sheep $165.00 

Value  of  hay,  turnips,  bran,  meal,  and  oil-cake,  fed.  305.84 

Freight  and  charges  on  24  lambs 7.92 

Balance  of  profit  and  loss 145.64 


$524.40 
CB. 

24  early  lambs  sold  at  from  $7  @  $10  each $192  00 

8  lambs,  @  $4.50 3600 

12  lambs,  @  $3.50 42.00 

8  lambs  kept,  @  $4.00 32.00 

9  Ibs.  pulled  wool,  @  30c 2.70 

182  Ibs.  of  wool,  @35c 63.70 

52  sheep  on  hand  (  3  killed  by  dogs) 156.00 

$524.40 

This  leaves  a  profit  of  nearly  100  per  cent,  on  the  original  cost 
of  the  sheep,  and  in  addition  a  large  pile  of  valuable  manure,  of 
which  no  account  was  kept." 

FATTENING    SHEEP   FOR   MARKET. 

Where  the  distance  from  market  prevents  profitable  shipments, 
and  the  home  market  furnishes  insufficient  encouragement  to 
breed  early  lambs,  the  purchase  of  sheep  for  fattening  may  be 
made  a  special  business  with  great  advantage.  In  this  business 
the  proper  choice  of  sheep  and  shrewdness  in  purchasing  are  as 
necessary  to  success  as  are  skill  in  feeding  and  choice  of  proper 
food.  Where  grades  of  Leicester  or  Cotswold  sheep,  such  as  are 
known  in  the  American  markets  as  Canada  sheep,  can  be  secured, 
those  are  the  most  profitable  to  purchase.  The  next  best  sheep  are 
grade  Southdowns ;  but  little  profit  is  to  be  made  out  of  our  native 
sheep  in  feeding  them  for  mutton.  They  are  poor  feeders,  and 
difficult  to  clothe  with  flesh  or  fat,  and  the  farmer  who  would  pur- 
chase sheep  to  feed  for  profit,  should  avoid  them.  He  had  better 
keep  such  sheep  for  breeding,  crossing  them  with  a  thoroughbred 
Cotswold  ram  and  feeding  the  produce. 

A  statement  given  by  Mr.  Jurian  Winne,  of  Albany  Co.,  N,  Y., 
in  the  Annual  Eegister  of  Rural  Affairs  for  1867-8-9,  will  be  found 
of  interest.  In  this  case  two  lots  of  sheep  from  a  large  flock  were 
set  apart  for  feeding ;  they  consisted  of  60  grade  Leicesters  from 
Canada,  and  61  Merinos;  they  were  weighed  Feb.  10th,  and  a 
careful  account  was  kept  of  the  food  consumed  during  46  days,  up 
to  March  28th,  when  they  were  weighed  and  sent  to  market. 
The  selection  was  simply  made  as  a  test,  and  to  avoid  the  trouble 


VALUE   OF   SHEEP   MANURE.  79 

of  keeping  an  accurate  account  of  the  whole  flock,  which  were 
treated  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  these.  The  following 
figures  give  the  result : 

Feb.  20,  60  grade  Leicesters  weighed 8,870  Ibs. 

March  28,  60  grade  Leicesters  weighed 9,878  Ibs. 

Gain  in  weight 1,008  Ibs. 

Feb.  20,  61  Merinos  weighed 6,909  Ibs. 

March  28,  61  Merinos  weighed 7,389  Ibs. 

Gain  in  weight 480  Ibs. 

Cost  of  feed  for  the  first  lot $174.43 

Cost  of  feed  for  the  second  lot 144.78 

Against  the  cost  of  feed  there  are  the  gain  in  weight  at  10£  and 
10|  cents  a  pound  respectively,  the  advance  in  price  upon  the 
whole  weight,  consequent  upon  the  improved  condition  of  the 
sheep,  and  the  manure  left.  On  the  whole,  there  was  a  profit  upon 
the  first  lot  and  a  loss  on  the  second  one.  Experience  teaches  that 
the  proper  selection  of  the  breed  of  sheep  is  a  very  important  con- 
sideration. It  would  be  wise  for  such  as  have  not  had  experience, 
and  who  do  not  understand  how  to  choose  sheep  for  feeding,  as 
well  as  how  to  feed  and  market  them  judiciously,  to  avoid  the 
business,  until  by  small  ventures,  they  have  learned  how  to  succeed 
with  larger  ones.  To  buy  judiciously  is  the  great  point,  for  "a 
flock  well  bought  is  half  sold." 

VALUE  OF  MANURE. — The  manure  of  sheep  is  naturally  rich ; 
their  mastication  and  digestion  are  so  perfect  that  seeds  of  weeds 
are  utterly  destroyed  in  the  passage  through  their  intestines,  and 
additional  value  is  readily  given  to  the  manure  by  feeding  a  por- 
tion of  concentrated  food,  such  as  oil-cakes,  corn-meal,  or  bran. 
The  urine  and  dung  of  the  sheep  are  both  very  rich  in  fertilizing 
elements.  The  urine  contains  28  parts  in  1,000  of  urea,  which  is  a 
highly  nitrogenized  substance,  and  12  parts  in  1,000  of  salts,  rich 
in  phosphoric  acid ;  the  remainder  is  water.  The  fresh  dung  con- 
tains : 

Of  water 68.0  per  cent. 

Animal  and  vegetable  matter 19.3  per  cent. 

Saline  matter  or  ash 12.7  per  cent. 

100.00  per  cent. 

The  organic  matter  is  rich  in  nitrogen,  so  much  so,  that  36  parts 
of  the  dung  contains  as  much  nitrogen  as  54  parts  of  horse  dung, 
63  parts  of  pig's  dung,  125  parts  of  cow's  dung,  and  100  parts  of 
mixed  barn-yard  manure.  The  manure  yielded  is  dry,  and  con- 
tains less  water  than  that  of  other  farm  animals ;  thus  for  100  Ibs. 


80  THE  SHEPHEKD'S  MANUAL. 

of  dry  fodder,  the  horse  or  cow  yields  216  Ibs.  of  fresh  manure — 
equal  to  46  Ibs.  dry — while  the  sheep  gives  but  128  Ibs.  of  moist 
manure — equal  to  43  Ibs.  dry.  It  ferments  very  quickly,  and  needs 
therefore  to  be  kept  solidly  packed  under  foot,  and  free  from 
access  of  air,  or  to  be  turned  frequently  when  heaped  in  the  yard. 
"When  the  manure,  made  in  the  ordinary  course  of  feeding,  pos- 
sesses this  high  relative  value,  it  may  readily  be  believed  that  when 
fattening  sheep  are  highly  fed  with  stimulating  food  rich  in  albu- 
men and  phosphates,  the  starch  and  oil  only  being  assimilated  hi 
the  production  of  fat,  and  the  others  being  used  only  in  part — 
their  dung  forms  a  very  rich  and  valuable  manure.  This  is  thor- 
oughly well  understood  by  English  farmers,  who  practise  the 
feeding  of  sheep  more  with  a  view  to  the  value  of  their  manure 
than  for  profit  in  other  ways,  and  it  is  unfortunate  for  us  that  we 
do  not  so  thoroughly  appreciate  this  as  to  practise  it  ourselves.  The 
following  quotation  from  a  paper  upon  this  subject,  read  by  an 
English  farmer  at  a  meeting  of  a  farmers'  club,  and  reported  hi  an 
English  agricultural  journal,  very  clearly  sets  forth  this  view: 

"  The  manurial  value  of  oil-cake,  when  used  regularly  on  a  farm, 
can  scarcely  be  over-estimated,  the  dung  made  in  the  stalls  being 
so  vastly  enriched  as  to  enable  it  to  be  spread  over  an  extended 
acreage,  with  better  results  than  could  possibly  be  obtained  from 
the  same  bulk  alone,  whatever  the  area  to  which  it  might  be  ap- 
plied, and  the  effect  is  discernible  on  the  color  and  quality  of  the 
pasture  for  a  much  longer  period.  The  improvement  effected  on 
grass-land  by  cake-fed  stock  is  an  example  of  the  utility  and  value 
of  this  excellent  food  which  every  one  can  understand,  its  action 
in  this  way  being  quicker,  and  so  distinct  as  to  be  unmistakable. 
With  sheep  the  improvement  is  peculiarly  striking  when  netted 
[confined  by  nets  or  hurdles]  over  a  pasture  field  and  largely  cake- 
fed,  the  droppings,  both  liquid  and  solid,  being  so  regularly  dis- 
tributed over  the  surface,  that  every  rootlet  is  reached  and  nour- 
ished, and  the  herbage  is  accordingly  forced  into  extraordinary 
luxuriance." 

Another  special  branch  of  sheep  keeping,  which  offers  advan- 
tages to  farmers  favorably  situated  for  it,  is  the  raising  of  a  good 
class  of  sheep  to  meet  the  demands  of  those  who  purchase  for  the 
purpose  of  raising  lambs,  or  for  winter  feeding  and  fattening. 
Where  markets  are  too  distant  to  enable  these  branches  of  sheep 
husbandry  to  be  profitably  followed,  a  good  class  of  stockers  or 
drover's  sheep  might  be  raised.  Half-bred,  long-wool  mutton  sheep 
could  be  raised  in  every  western  state  and  shipped  to  the  great  cen- 
tral markets  of  Kansas  City,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Buffalo,  and  else- 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP.  81 

where,  to  be  disposed  of  to  drovers,  or  to  farmers  themselves  who 
are  seeking  a  supply  of  store  sheep.  This  would  give  an  oppor- 
tunity of  increasing  the  supply  of  long  wool,  so  much  needed,  and 
of  decreasing  that  of  fine  wool  now  too  plentiful  to  maintain  prices 
satisfactory  to  fine  wool  growers.  The  season  for  marketing  these 
sheep  would  be  hi  August  and  September,  the  time  in  which  they 
are  most  in  demand,  and  one  in  which  the  western  pastures  gener- 
ally fail.  It  may  be  that  in  a  few  years,  at  some  or  all  of  these 
points,  and  many  others,  there  may  yet  be  seen  great  sheep  mar- 
kets at  stated  periods,  something  like  those  of  Ireland,  Scotland,  or 
England,  at  which  40,000  to  80,000  sheep  are  offered  for  sale,  and 
bought  and  paid  for  in  a  couple  of  days.  When  sheep  breeding 
becomes  fully  developed  in  America,  these  markets  will  probably 
have  been  found  needful,  and  have  grown  and  developed  from 
necessity,  as  has  been  the  case  elsewhere,  and  such  an  economical 
and  convenient  division  of  labor  as  this  may  become  a  regular  and 
systematic  part  of  the  business  of  sheep  farming. 


CHAPTER    V. 

BREEDING  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP. 

The  strength  and  vigor  that  results  from  the  fixity  of  type, 
which  is  so  marked  a  characteristic  of  wild  races  of  animals,  come 
through  what  is  called  the  natural  selection  of  parents.  It  is  the 
natural  force  and  strength  of  the  most  vigorous  in  perpetuating 
their  kind,  together  with  the  hardening  influences  of  exposure, 
which  give  them  their  strong  constitution  and  great  power  to 
resist  misfortune.  The  race  is  perpetuated  only  by  the  strongest, 
because  weaker  members  perish  from  the  hardships  necessarily 
borne  by  a  wild  race,  or  are  driven  off  or  destroyed  in  the  desper- 
ate conflicts  which  occur  between  the  males  at  the  breeding  season. 
To  gain  strength  and  vigor,  the  most  skillful  breeder  could  follow 
no  more  effective  course  than  the  one  here  indicated.  The  natural 
power  possessed  by  the  thoroughbred  male  animal  to  transmit  his 
qualities,  which  power  is  recognized  amongst  breeders  by  the 
term  "  prepotency,"  fixes  the  type  of  the  race  which  through  this 
influence  becomes  homogeneous ;  every  member  presenting  exactly 
the  same  character  in  form  and  habit.  But  when  a  race  of  ani- 


82  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MAHUAL. 

mals  becomes  domesticated,  necessities  arise  which  call  for  some- 
thing more  than  mere  vigor  of  constitution,  although  this  should 
always  remain  a  vital  point  in  the  breeders  estimation.  The  sole 
aim  of  the  stock  breeder  is  profit,  and  this  lies  not  so  much  in  a 
long  life  as  in  early  maturity.  The  total  result  of  six  or  ten  years  of 
the  life  of  a  wild  animal  is  crowded  into  two  or  four  years  of  a 
domesticated  one.  The  capacity  for  consumption  of  food,  and  the 
ability  to  turn  a  larger  quantity  of  food  into  flesh  or  wool  in  a 
shorter  time  are  gained  by  the  skill  of  the  breeder,  and  in  course  of 
time  the  quality  of  the  product  is  refined  and  improved  until  hardly 
a  semblance  of  the  original  stock  remains  in  the  highly-bred,  im- 
proved animal.  The  rapidity  with  which  these  effects  have  been 
produced  by  some  of  the  most  skillful  sheep-breeders  is  wonderful, 
and  the  names  of  Bakewell  and  Webb  will  be  remembered,  and 
their  successes  perseveringly  emulated  for  many  years  to  come. 
No  animal  is  more  easily  improved  in  character,  and  none  yields 
more  readily  to  the  breeder's  art,  than  the  sheep.  But  the  reverse 
is  also  true,  for  if  on  the  one  hand  success  rapidly  rewards  the 
successful  breeder,  failure  as  rapidly  warns  the  unsuccessful  one 
that  he  has  made  a  mistake,  and  must  immediately  retrace  his 
steps. 

The  management  and  selection  of  any  existing  breed  of  sheep,  or 
of  the  production  of  any  new  breed  or  variety,  must  be  a  question 
of  profit.  The  point  for  the  farmer  to  consider  is,  what  kind  of 
sheep  will  pay  him  best  to  keep,  taking  into  consideration  his 
locality,  his  soil,  the  crops  he  can  conveniently  raise  with  which 
to  sustain  them,  and  his  markets  for  disposing  of  his  wool  and  his 
animals,  whether  as  lambs  or  as  store  sheep,  or  fat  sheep  fit  for 
the  butcher.  For  want  of  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  habits, 
characteristics,  and  peculiarities  of  the  various  breeds,  many  a 
farmer  has  made  a  fatal  mistake,  and  failed,  when  otherwise  he 
might  easily  have  been  successful.  The  results  of  these  mistakes 
in  selection,  and  errors  of  management,  have  led  to  much  dis- 
appointment and  disgust.  One  of  the  most  serious  errors  of  our 
breeders  and  farmers,  is  the  endeavor  to  maintain  up  to  a 
certain  standard  of  excellence  in  this  country,  in  spite  of  all  the 
differences  of  climate  and  varieties  of  food,  the  highly  bred  races 
of  English  sheep,  which  have  been  imported  from  time  to  time. 
Nearly  every  flock  of  all  the  pure  races  has  failed  to  keep  up  to 
the  original  standard,  although  new  importations  have  been  added 
to  them.  The  farmer  who  has  purchased  a  few  sheep  from  such 
flocks,  being  without  the  requisite  knowledge  as  to  their  manage- 
ment, or  not  possessing  the  fitting  food  for  them,  has  found  them 


SELECTION  OF  BREEDING  ANIMALS.        83 

to  dwindle  away  from  day  to  day  until  only  a  sorry  remnant  has 
been  left  which  has  been  finally  absorbed  into  a  flock  of  hardier 
natives,  or  has  disappeared  altogether.  Had  these  farmers  judi- 
ciously purchased  male  animals  only,  and  used  them,  under 
proper  restrictions,  for  the  improvement  of  their  native  sheep, 
they  would  in  time  have  possessed  flocks  which  they  could  have 
managed  successfully  and  profitably,  and  have  secured  a  perma- 
nent type  suited  to  their  locality  and  circumstances.  But  the 
improvement  of  a  flock  by  breeding  requires  much  patience  and 
perseverance,  and  a  fixed  idea  of  some  result  to  be  gained.  In 
breeding,  good  results  rarely  come  by  hap-hazard  or  accident. 
There  must  be  a  distinct  end  in  view,  and  there  must  be  appropri- 
ate and  painstaking  efforts  made  to  reach  that  end.  The  breeder 
must  have  a  clear  idea,  not  only  of  what  he  wants  to  gain,  but  of 
what  he  wishes  to  get  rid  of,  and  he  must  know  the  character  of 
his  flock  intimately.  One  who  knows  all  this  can  so  accurately 
describe  the  kind  of  ram  he  needs  to  improve  his  flock,  that  a 
conscientious  breeder  from  whom  he  may  purchase  the  needed 
animal,  can  choose  him  as  well,  if  not  better,  than  he  can  himself. 

In  breeding  to  improve-  a  flock,  the  qualities  of  both  parents 
must  be  considered,  remembering  that  the  male  exercises  the 
greater  influence  in  determining  the  character  of  the  offspring.  A 
pure-bred  Cotswold  ram,  crossed  upon  a  Merino  ewe,  for  instance, 
will  produce  an  offspring  that  much  more  resembles  himself  than 
it  does  the  dam.  This  principle  is  well  recognized  amongst  breed- 
ers. Nevertheless,  the  very  best  of  the  females  should  be  chosen, 
and  the  faulty  lambs  culled  out  each  year,  until  the  finest  only 
remain.  During  this  time  it  would  be  prudent  for  the  farmer  to 
retain  no  males  of  his  own  breeding,  but  to  secure  by  purchase  or 
hire  from  some  capable  professional  breeder,  such  changes  of 
males  as  may  be  necessary.  Much  good  may  be  done  by  unselfish 
breeders  in  the  way  of  letting  pure-bred  rams  for  a  fair  considera- 
tion to  neighboring  farmers  who  may  not  have  the  means  to 
purchase  one  outright.  By  changing  rams  occasionally,  two 
farmers  may  very  profitably  help  each  other  without  expending  a 
dollar  for  the  necessary  new  blood. 

The  points  sought  for  in  rams,  with  which  to  improve  a  flock, 
are  those  which  directly  add  to  the  value  of  the  sheep,  or  those 
which  are  evidence  of  the  possession  of  valuable  qualities.  Thus 
the  abundance  of  yolk,  or  the  fineness  of  the  wool,  or  its  curl,  or 
the  depth  or  form  of  carcass,  upon  which  depends  the  quality  and 
the  quantity  of  the  fleece,  are  esteemed  in  the  Merinos ;  in  the 
Southdown,  the  small  head  and  leg,  and  small  bones,  with  the 


84  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

black  muzzle  and  legs  are  highly  regarded,  as  these  denote  quick 
fattening  properties,  and  hardiness  of  constitution.  The  breadth 
of  shoulder,  the  straightness  and  levelness  of  the  back,  the  breadth 
of  loin,  and  the  spring  of  the  ribs  and  rotundity  of  the  frame  of 
the  Cotswold,  Leicester,  and  other  heavy-bodied  sheep,  indicate 
capacity  for  feeding  and  digestion,  and  laying  on  of  flesh,  and  are 
therefore  regarded  as  valuable  points.  Large  bones  are  an  unfavor- 
able point,  as  they  denote  an  abstraction  of  nutriment  which 
should  otherwise  go  to  the  formation  of  flesh  and  the  greater 
value  of  the  carcass.  The  absence  of  horns,  for  the  same  reason, 
is  desirable  in  sheep  bred  for  mutton.  A  soft,  mellow  feeling  of 
skin  and  the  tissue  underneath,  and  a  softness  of  the  fleece,  are 
indicative  of  a  tendency  to  the  rapid  formation  of  fat.  A  round 
frame  and  broad  loin  indicate  the  existence  of  abundant  flesh, 
where  it  is  the  most  valuable,  and  a  general  squareness  of  the  out- 
line of  the  figure  proves  the  existence  of  large  muscular  develop- 
ment and  consequently  heavy  quarters.  In  short,  for  sheep  which 
are  not  kept  solely  for  the  production  of  wool,  what  is  wanted  is, 
all  the  flesh  possible  with  no  more  bone  than  can  carry  it,  and  that 
the  flesh  should  be  where  it  will  be  the  most  valuable,  viz :  on  those 
parts  which  bring  the  highest  prices  on  the  butchers'  stalls — the 
loins  and  quarters.  Where  wool  is  the  sole  object,  weight  and 
fineness  of  fleece  alone  need  to  be  considered.  Where  wool  and 
mutton  are  each  equally  sought  for,  the  matter  becomes  compli- 
cated by  many  considerations,  each  of  which  should  be  studied 
with  a  view  to  give  the  preponderance  to  those  which  have  the 
greatest  special  or  local  importance. 

In  crossing  breeds,  we  seek  to  increase  the  size,  improve  the 
shape,  or  hasten  the  maturity  of  the  sheep ;  or  improve  the  length, 
quality,  or  closeness  of  the  fleece.  But  it  will  not  do  to  select  at 
random  any  ram  which  may  happen  to  possess  the  qualities 
desired,  without  regard  to  some  aflBnity  of  character  with  the 
ewes,  lest  lambs  should  be  produced  that  are  weak  hi  constitution, 
or  shapeless  mongrels,  through  too  wide  a  disparity  between  the 
parents.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  Leicester  ram  has  made 
a  greater  improvement  with  long-wool  sheep  than  with  the  short- 
wool  breeds,  and  that  the  Southdown  has  made  a  more  successful 
first  cross  upon  the  latter.  The  Cotswold  has  been  very  success- 
fully crossed  upon  the  Merino,  the  Hampshire-down,  the  South- 
down, and  other  races,  and  as  the  parent  of  cross-bred  races,  this 
most  valuable  breed  has  gained  the  highest  reputation.  As  a  rule, 
the  first  cross  between  a  superior  and  high-bred  race,  and  an  infe- 
rior one,  produces  the  best  sheep  for  breeding  together ;  further 


CHOICE   OF   A    RAM.  85 

crosses  often  produce  animals  which  deteriorate  in  breeding,  the 
progeny  regaining  more  of  the  character  of  its  inferior  parentage, 
and  losing  that  of  the  superior  one.  Judgment  and  caution  are 
needed  in  selecting  those  results  which  have  been  successful,  and  in 
rejecting  those  which  are  unfavorable,  also  in  continuing  the  inter- 
breeding for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  eliminate  all  the  defects 
which  may  reappear  at  times  in  the  progeny.  It  is  only  after 
several  generations  that  animals  can  be  produced,  which  may  be 
permitted  safely  to  perpetuate  their  kind  without  further  careful 
selection.  During  the  intervening  period,  very  close  watchfulness 
is  necessary ;  the  form  of  the  animal,  the  preponderance  of  the 
desired  points,  as  well  as  those  that  are  not  desirable,  the  charac- 
ter of  the  fleece,  and  the  soundness  of  the  animal's  constitution, 
should  all  be  patiently  studied.  Great  contrasts  between  breeding 
animals  should  be  avoided,  as  being  dangerous  to  uniformity,  and 
a  gradual  approach  to  a  desired  end  by  several  steps  will  be  found 
more  certainly  effective  than  to  endeavor  to  attain  it  by  one  or 
two  violent  efforts. 

The  selection  of  rams  for  breeding  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest 
importance.  Not  only  the  character  of  the  flock,  but  the  number 
of  the  lambs,  to  some  extent,  depend  upon  this.  For  general 
purposes,  the  ram  should  be  chosen  for  his  perfection  of  shape 
and  fleece,  rather  than  for  his  size  or  weight.  For  mutton  sheep, 
whether  long  wool  or  medium  wool,  a  round  barrel,  broad  loin, 
fine  bone,  short  legs,  close  wool,  especially  upon  the  back  and 
loins,  small  head,  full  fore  arms  and  thighs,  and  a  mellowness  of 
flesh  within  the  fore  legs  upon  the  ribs,  where  a  poor  sheep 
never  carries  any  fat,  and  in  general  an  evenness  of  excellence, 
rather  than  any  special  single  point  of  superiority,  whether 
of  size  of  body,  or  length,  or  weight  of  fleece,  should  be 
sought.  A  very  heavy,  large-bodied  ram,  will  probably  pro- 
duce very  irregular  lambs,  which  will  disappoint  the  breeder ; 
while  a  well  knit,  more  even,  smoother  but  smaller  ram,  will  pro- 
duce lambs  of  great  uniformity  and  resemblance  to  himself,  and 
very  frequently,  and  especially  so  if  out  of  well  selected  ewes, 
greatly  surpassing  him  in  size  of  carcass  at  maturity.  In  breeding 
from  a  large  ram  upon  small  bodied  ewes,  unless  there  is  some 
special  reason  against  it,  a  ram  with  a  small  head  should  be  chosen, 
and  the  ewes  selected  should  be  wide  across  the  loins,  with  a  broad 
rump  and  wide  pelvis.  From  a  disregard  of  this  it  is  sometimes 
the  case  that  severe  labor  or  death  in  parturition  occurs  amongst 
the  ewes.  In  the  first  coupling  of  the  young  ewes,  the  greatest 
care  should  be  exercised  in  selecting  the  ram,  for  its  influence  may 


80 

and  sometimes  will  extend  beyond  his  own  immediate  progeny, 
and  modify  that  of  future  sires  upon  the  same  dams.  While  this 
influence  of  the  first  male  is  not  so  general  as  to  afford  a  basis  for 
a  rule,  yet  observation  has  shown  it  to  be  of  sufficient  force  to 
entitle  it  to  the  consideration  of  careful  breeders.  The  influence 
of  the  ram  upon  the  sex  of  the  progeny,  is  something  equally 
worth  considering,  although  it  is  as  yet  somewhat  undetermined. 
In  theory  it  is  supposed  to  be  exerted  through  a  natural  provision 
by  which  the  fecundity  of  a  race  increases  along  with  the  better 
opportunities  it  enjoys  for  its  subsistence.  Thus  it  is  reasoned, 
when  animals  are  well  fed  and  cared  for,  and  are  not  allowed  to 
breed  early,  their  produce  will  be  in  greater  part  females,  permit- 
ting a  more  rapid  increase,  in  consistence  with  their  more  favor- 
able opportunities  for  development.  On  the  contrary,  when  ani- 
mals are  sparely  fed  or  exhaustively  used,  and  allowed  to  breed 
early,  the  tendency  of  nature  is  to  restrict  the  production  by  the 
birth  chiefly  of  males.  This  theory  receives  confirmation  through 
the  tendency  of  the  early  breeding  and  exhaustively  producing 
Jersey  cow  to  have  male  calves,  and  through  some  observed  facts 
in  sheep  breeding. 

One  of  the  facts  directly  pertinent  to  this  matter  is  recorded  in 
the  Anncdes  de  V Agriculture  Fran$aise,  as  follows.  It  was  proposed 
at  a  meeting  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Severac,  to  divide  a 
flock  of  ewes  into  two  parts,  that  an  experiment  might  be  made  to 
test  the  question  of  breeding  for  sex.  One  flock  of  ewes  was  put 
into  an  abundant  pasture,  and  was  served  by  very  young  rams. 
The  other  flock  was  put  into  a  poorer  pasture,  and  was  served  by 
rams  not  less  than  four  years  old.  The  result  is  given  in  the  tables 
which  follow  ;  the  flock  from  which  the  excess  of  female  lambs 
was  expected,  being  served  by  rams  15  months  to  18  months  old, 
produced  three  twin  births,  and  the  flock  expected  to  yield  the 
most  male  lambs,  and  which  was  served  by  rams  over  4  years  old, 
produced  not  one  double  birth. 

Flock  for  female  lambs  served  by  rams  under  18  months  old . 

Sex  of  the  Lambs. 

Age  of  Ewes.                                             Males.  Females. 

Two  years  old 14  26 

Three  years  old 16  29 

Four  years  old 5  21 

Total 35  76 

The  excess  of  female  lambs  in  this  flock  is  very  remarkable,  as 
is  also  the  excess  of  male  lambs  shown  in  the  next  table. 


ESSENTIALS  TO   SUCCESS.  87 

Flock  for  male  lambs  served  by  rams  over  4  years  old : 

Sex  of  the  Lambs. 


Age  of  Ewes.  Males.  Females. 

Two  years  old 7  3 

Three  years  old 15  14 

Four  years  old 32  14 

Total 55  31 

The  result  certainly  justified  the  expectation,  but  it  can  scarcely 
be  held  to  be  anything  more  than  suggestive  for  further  research 
or  experiment,  rather  than  conclusive  for  the  founding  of  a  rule. 
The  following  well  considered  remarks  made  by  the  Hon.  A.  M. 
Garland,  editor  in  charge  of  the  sheep  and  wool  department  of  the 
National  Live-Stock  Journal,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Madison  Co.,  (111.) 
Farmers'  Club,  May  8th,  1875,  are  sufficiently  valuable  and  perti- 
nent to  be  recorded  here :  "  One  essential  to  successful  breeding  is 
a  persistent  endeavor  to  attain  the  standard  that  has  been  fixed 
upon  by  the  breeder  as  his  idea  of  the  perfect  animal.  While  the 
sheep  will  be  found  to  conform  more  readily  than  any  other  ani- 
mal, except  perhaps  the  dog,  to  certain  well  understood  physio- 
logical laws,  the  attainment  of  all  the  desired  characteristics,  and 
their  incorporation  into  the  life  and  constitution  so  as  to  insure 
transmission  with  the  desired  force  and  certainty,  is  a  labor  involv- 
ing not  alone  judgment  and  taste,  but  patience  as  well.  Mythology 
tells  us  of  the  goddess  who  leaped  full-armed  from  the  head  of 
Jove  ;  but  the  attainment  of  perfect  ends  without  the  employment 
of  patient  and  laborious  means,  is  not  among  the  blessings  that 
surround  the  business  man  in  this  material  age.  He  who  expects 
to  accomplish  in  a  year  what  others  have  only  completed  in  a  life- 
time of  labor,  is  pretty  surely  doomed  to  gather  the  bitter  fruit  of 
disappointment,  and  the  chances  are  largely  in  favor  of  pecuniary 
loss  as  well.  It  required  over  fifty  years  of  labor,  and  care,  and 
study,  to  bring  the  nine-pound  fleece  rams  imported  by  Humphrey 
and  others,  up  to  the  25  and  30  pound  shearers  that  head  a  number 
of  the  flocks  of  the  present  day.  The  highest  types  of  the  Cots- 
wold  and  Southdown  are  the  result  of  an  expenditure  of  time,  and 
money,  and  study,  equal  to  that  bestowed  upon  the  Merino  in  the 
United  States  in  the  last  half  a  century.  Such  facts  as  these  afford 
small  encouragement  for  those  young  men  who  see  visions,  and 
those  older  ones  who  dream  dreams,  of  a  speedy  fortune  and  an 
assured  fame  by  the  establishment  of  an  intermediate  breed  of 
sheep— one  that  will  combine  in  a  single  animal  the  good  qualities 
of  all  the  breeds  and  the  weak  points  of  none.  Any  of  the  estab- 


88  THE  SHEPHEBD'S  MANUAL. 

lished  types  will  improve  what  is  known  as  our  common  native 
sheep,  sufficiently  to  justify  the  payment  of  a  fair  price  for  a  choice 
ram.  Grades  from  these  flocks  of  common  sheep,  bred  towards 
the  long  wools,  the  Downs  or  the  Merinos,  will  be  found  profita- 
ble stock  to  the  average  farmer.  Care  should  be  had  to  breed  all 
the  time  in  the  same  direction — that  is,  always  using  the  best  rams 
of  their  kind  within  reach,  having  due  regard  to  prudence  in 
making  the  purchases.  The  first  cross  will  usually  show  a  greater 
change  from  the  standard  of  the  coarse-wooled  mother  than  subse- 
quent ones,  though  an  occasional  cropping  out  of  her  less  desira- 
ble characteristics  may  be  expected,  but  should  not  discourage  the 
effort  at  improvement  as  persistent  crossing  by  pure-bred  rams 
will  bring  its  reward  in  a  sightly  flock  of  grades,  that  can  be  de- 
pended upon  to  reproduce  their  characteristics  with  reasonable 
certainty." 

"  In  and  in  "  breeding,  or  breeding  between  near  relatives,  is  a 
subject  which  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion,  and  to  much 
diversity  of  opinion.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that  close  breeding 
up  to  a  certain  point  is  necessary  to  secure  a  fixed  type,  and  when 
judiciously  done,  it  may  be  the  means  of  securing  most  valuable 
results.  The  English  sheep  breeders  who  have  become  most  noted 
for  their  successes,  have  bred  very  closely,  a  most  conspicuous 
example  being  Mr.  Bakewell  with  his  improved  Leicesters.  Proba- 
bly no  race  of  animals  were  so  closely  interbred  as  this.  But  it  is 
questioned  by  some  breeders  if  the  limit  of  safety  in  this  respect 
has  not  been  overstepped,  for  no  race  so  strongly  exhibits  in  their 
defects  the  evil  results  which  follow  from  too  close  breeding  for 
any  considerable  length  of  time.  The  small  light  bone,  the  bald- 
head,  the  prominent  glassy  eyes,  the  thin,  delicate  skin,  the  ten- 
dency to  tuberculous  diseases,  and  other  scrofulous  affections,  all  of 
which  are  characteristic  of  some  classes  of  the  Leicesters,  are  the 
very  evils  which  are  known  to  follow  from  too  close  sexual  affini- 
ties. Safety  certainly  lies  in  the  avoidance  of  this  sort  of  breeding 
to  any  great  extent,  and  as  a  general  rule  for  ordinary  breeders,  it 
may  perhaps  be  laid  down,  that  to  breed  a  ram  to  his  own  lambs 
may  be  permitted,  but  to  breed  to  the  second  generation  of  off- 
spring should  be  avoided.  To  change  the  ram  the  second  year 
would  be  to  act  on  the  side  of  safety,  and  except  in  rare  instances, 
and  for  the  attainment  of  clearly  apprehended  results,  this  should 
be  the  limit  of  close  breeding.  To  breed  a  ram  to  his  own  ewe 
lambs  is  regarded  as  safer,  and  not  so  close  breeding  as  breeding 
full  brother  and  sister  together,  and  yet  to  attain  certain  desired 
ends,  this  is  and  has  been  done,  and  will  often  be  done  by  breeders. 


MAXIMS   FOB  BREEDERS.  89 

It  may  be  questionable,  however,  if  the  results  sought  might  not 
be  as  certainly  and  more  securely  gained  by  using  less  closely  re- 
lated animals.  Mr.  Edwin  Hammond,  a  noted  breeder  of  Ameri- 
can Merinos,  who  has  done  much  to  develop  this  breed,  seldom 
used  rams  with  which  to  make  his  crosses  that  were  not  of  his 
own  flock.  His  famous  ram  'Sweepstakes,  came  from  a  closely 
in-and-in  bred  family  ;  but  because  the  most  skillful  breeders  have 
succeeded  in  producing  conspicuously  favorable  effects,  it  must 
not  be  concluded  that  other  less  capable  breeders  or  farmers  who 
know  but  little  of  the  science  of  breeding,  can  hope  to  achieve  any 
satisfactory  measure  of  success.  Besides,  it  should  be  considered 
that  we  only  hear  of  the  successes  of  these  breeders.  Their  fail- 
ures are  at  once  put  out  of  the  way,  and  no  record  is  made  of 
them ;  in  fact  a  portion  of  their  skill,  and  not  an  inconsiderable 
portion  either,  consists  hi  instantly  recognizing  their  failures,  and 
in  summarily  disposing  of  them. 

In  summing  up  these  few  general  remarks  upon  breeding,  the 
following  may  be  accepted  as  maxims  for  guidance  to  those  as  yet 
not  familiar  with  the  principles  of  the  art.  Breed  for  some  well  un- 
derstood object.  Learn  and  know  the  character  of  every  ewe  and 
ram  in  the  flock.  Remember  that  the  male  gives  his  impress  upon 
the  progeny  most  strongly.  Purity  of  blood  in  the  male  is  an 
absolute  necessity.  It  is  cheaper  to  pay  a  fair  price  for  good  rams 
to  a  capable  breeder,  who  makes  the  production  of  breeding  ani- 
mals his  business,  than  to  attempt  to  raise  one's  own  breeding 
stock.  Animals  that  are  not  pure-bred,  when  coupled,  tend  toward 
reversion  to  the  inferior  stock  rather  than  to  progression  towards 
the  superior.  Animals,  as  sheep,  that  are  easily  impressed  favora- 
bly, as  easily  retrograde  ;  the  rule  works  both  ways.  To  feed  well,  is 
the  co-efficient  of,  to  breed  well  ;  without  good  feeding  good  breed- 
ing is  of  no  avail.  Breeding  lays  the  foundation,  feeding  builds  on 
that.  The  first  cross  is  the  most  effective,  the  next  is  but  half  as 
effective,  and  so  on  until,  as  in  the  increasing  fraction  ya,  3/4,  7/s, 
"/is,  31/32,  63/64,  etc.,  etc.,  unity  is  approached  by  diminishing 
quantities,  and  is  thus  never  reached  ;  so  the  higher  we  breed  the 
less  advance  is  made  in  proportion.  That  a  type  so  fixed  that  the 
breeders  care  in  selection  can  ever  be  relaxed  will  never  be  reached. 

NATIVE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP. 

THE  MEXICAN  SHEEP.— Since  the  first  discovery  of  America 
by  Europeans,  more  than  four  centuries  ago,  there  have  been  nu- 
merous importations  of  sheep  into  both  South  and  North  America. 
The  first  of  these  importations  consisted  doubtless  of  the  common 


90  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

native  sheep  of  Spain,  designated  by  Dr.  L.  T.  Fitzinger,  the 
author  of  a  paper  upon  the  races  of  domestic  sheep  of  Europe, 
(presented  to  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Science  in  Vienna,  in  1860), 
as  the  landschafy  or  common  rustic  sheep,  (Oms  aries).  This  sheep 
bore  a  very  meager  fleece  of  coarse  wool.  It  is  probable  that  all 
that  part  of  the  American  continent  which  became  subject  to  its 
Spanish  discoverers,  including  the  islands  of  the  West  Indies,  was 
stocked  with  this  common  race.  At  that  period  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment very  jealously  guarded  the  Merino  sheep,  and  forbade 
their  exportation,  even  to  their  own  American  colonies.  It  is 
known,  however,  that  a  few  Merinos  were  occasionally  smuggled 
into  Peru,  and  that  to  these  was  due  the  superior  character  of  the 
wool  of  that  country,  which  exists  up  to  the  present  century. 
Elsewhere,  however,  the  character  of  the  dominant  race  of  sheep 
was  very  inf erior,  and  it  now  so  remains ;  the  imports  of  wool 
from  South  America  into  the  Uuited  States  being  coarse  in  quality, 
and  rating  only  as  among  the  third  class.  Of  a  similar  character 
to  this  is  the  race  of  sheep  known  in  our  western  territories  as 
"  Mexican."  Their  origin  is  clearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  native 
South  American  sheep,  and  their  appearance  is  identical  with  that 
of  the  sheep  represented  in  ancient  Spanish  paintings  as  the  ordi- 
nary race  of  the  country,  the  property  of  the  peasantry.  It  may 
be  concluded  as  most  probable,  if  not  certain,  that  this  race,  one 
of  the  ten  primitive  or  distinct  original  races  which  inhabited  Eu- 
rope, as  determined  by  Dr.  Fitzinger,  (whose  classification  is  con- 
firmed by  other  scientific  men),  unaltered  by  more  than  three 
centuries  of  acclimatization,  is  now  represented  by  the  bulk  of  the 
flocks  which  roam  over  Mexico,  Texas,  New  Mexico,  Arizona, 
parts  of  California,  and  more  recently  Colorado.  These  sheep  are 
hardy,  wiry  animals,  weighing  about  40  pounds,  and  yielding  when 
unmixed  with  any  Merino  blood,  a  fleece  of  about  two  pounds  of 
coarse  wool.  Of  late  this  inferior  race  has  been  improved  to 
some  extent  by  crossing  with  pure  Merinos  from  Vermont  and 
other  eastern  states,  and  is  found  to  make  an  excellent  basis 
whereon  to  build  up  an  improved  and  useful  race.  These  sheep 
are  of  but  little  value,  and  in  flocks  are  sold  and  bought  at  about 
$1.50  per  head.  The  business  of  shipping  rams  westward  to  sup- 
ply this  demand,  from  almost  every  state  where  Merinos  are  kept, 
has  already  reached  respectable  dimensions,  and  is  rapidly  increas- 
ing. The  result  cannot  fail  to  build  up,  in  course  of  time,  a  valua- 
ble class  of  native  sheep  well  suited  to  these  localities.  These 
improved  sheep  produce  a  fleece  weighing  about  4  pounds  of  grade 
Merino  wool,  which  will  supply  to  a  very  great  extent  local  manu- 


NATIVE  BREEDS.  91 

factories  of  such  woolen  goods  as  are  in  demand  in  the  western 
country,  and  thus  render  the  far  western  states  independent,  so 
far  as  regards  their  supply  of  woolen  manufactures,  of  the  eastern 
factories. 

THE  VIRGINIA  SHEEP. — A  native  race  of  greater  pretensions, 
and  far  greater  value  than  the  preceding,  sprung  from  the  first 
importation  of  English  sheep  in  Jamestown,  Va.,  in  1609.  The 
original  settlers  of  this  new  Dominion  were  in  part  men  of  wealth 
and  position.  The  stock  they  imported  would  naturally  be  of  the 
best  that  could  be  obtained,  and  the  favorable  climate  of  the 
country  for  sheep-raising,  would  tend  to  preserve  the  sheep  from 
degradation.  Repeated  importations  of  excellent  sheep  were 
made  during  the  succeeding  two  centuries,  by  prominent  Virgin- 
ians, amongst  whom  were  the  Washingtons,  and  various  members 
of  the  Custis  family.  Thus  was  founded  a  class  of  more  than 
usually  good,  heavy  bodied,  long-wool  sheep,  which  still  exists  and 
is  famed  for  producing  excellent  early  market  lambs.  Of  late 
years  considerable  Leicester,  Cotswold,  and  Southdown  blood  has 
been  mingled  with  the  old  stock.  Although  the  Virginia  sheep 
can  hardly  claim  to  be  considered  as  a  distinct  breed,  yet  they 
certainly  furnish  a  very  good  basis  upon  which,  by  careful  selec- 
tion and  interbreeding,  to  found  a  breed  thoroughly  well  adapted 
to  the  locality,  as  they  are  already  acclimated  and  possess  estab- 
lished qualities. 

THE  IMPROVED  KENTUCKY  SHEEP. — An  account  of  the  efforts 
which  have  been  made  to  produce  native  varieties  of  sheep,  would 
not  be  complete  without  the  mention  of  what  has  been  called  the 
"  Improved  Kentucky  Sheep."  This  breed  or  race  originated  with 
Mr.  Robert  Scott,  of  Frankfort,  Kentucky,  who  crossed  the  com- 
mon native  sheep  of  the  locality,  with  Merino,  Leicester,  South- 
down, Cotswold,  and  Oxford-down  rams.  This  was  begun  about 
40  years  ago,  by  selecting  30  native  ewes,  which  were  bred 
to  a  selected  Merino  ram.  The  yearling  ewes  of  this  cross  were 
bred  to  an  imported  Leicester  ram.  The  ewes  of  this  cross  were 
served  by  an  imported  ram  of  the  Southdown  breed.  The  pro- 
duce of  this  cross  were  then  bred  to  a  ram  of  mixed  blood,  three- 
fourths  Cotswold  and  one-fourth  Southdown.  The  next  two 
crosses  were  made  by  Cotswold  rams,  and  the  next  by  an  Oxford- 
down  ram.  The  produce  of  the  last  cross  were  bred  to  Cotswold 
rams  again.  This  brought  the  flock  up  to  1855,  when  a  mixed 
Cotswold,  Oxford,  Leicester,  and  Southdown  ram  was  brought 
into  service.  After  this  the  rams  produced  by  this  very  mixed 


92  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL,, 

breeding  were  used.  In  1867  Mr.  Scott  furnished  an  account  of 
his  sheep  for  the  annual  report  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
for  1866,  in  which  he  gave  some  very  flattering  testimonials  which 
he  had  received  from  various  parties,  to  whom  he  had  sold  his 
sheep,  with  pictures  of  rams  and  ewes  of  his  flock.  At  that  time 
his  flock  consisted  of  about  200  ewes  and  50  yearling  rams.  Since 
then  nothing  further  has  been  made  public  regarding  this  so-called 
improved  sheep.  Unfortunately  the  system  of  breeding  followed 
by  Mr.  Scott  could  not  have  any  definite  or  favorable  result,  as  it 
is  opposed  to  all  the  principles  from  which  favorable  results  could 
have  been  anticipated.  An  animal  thus  produced  could  not  be 
anything  else  than  a  mongrel,  and  although  it  might  at  first  pre- 
sent a  promising  appearance,  yet  no  certain  characteristics  could 
be  expected  to  appear  in  its  progeny.  No  such  hasty  process  as 
this  could  be  made  permanent,  for  there  had  been  no  fixed  type 
produced  by  any  of  the  crosses  upon  which  to  build  a  further  cross, 
to  be  in  turn  fixed  permanently  upon  the  race.  No  "  breed  "  has 
ever  been  thus  produced,  nor  can  a  "  breed  "  by  any  possibility  be 
established  by  this  course  of  breeding  while  physiological  laws  re- 
main in  force.  This  example  is  here  cited  as  a  warning  and  a 
caution,  rather  than  as  one  to  be  followed  by  those  persons  who 
have  an  ambition  to  found  a  new  or  improved  breed  of  sheep. 

THE  AMERICAN  MERINO. — One  of  the  most  successful  instances 
of  the  fortuitous  results  of  sheep  breeding,  exists  in  the  establish- 
ment of  the  American  Merino.  In  a  Treatise  upon  the  Australian 
Merino,  by  J.  R.  Graham,  superintendent  of  an  extensive  sheep 
station  on  the  Murray  River,  (published  in  Melbourne,  in  1870), 
the  following  testimony  is  given :  "  Of  all  imported  sheep,  those 
of  our  first  cousins,  the  Americans,  are  the  best.  The  best  rams 
imported  into  Melbourne  of  late  years  were  some  American  rams." 
This  coming  from  so  capable  a  judge,  and  in  competition  with  the 
best  selections  of  Merino  sheep  to  be  procured  elsewhere  in  the 
world,  may  be  taken  without  question  as  proof  that  the  American 
Merino  is  the  best  sheep  of  its  class  in  the  world.  It  is  therefore 
interesting  to  trace  the  course  through  which  this  breed  has  been 
brought  to  its  present  excellence,  which  enables  it  to  stand  alone 
on  its  own  merits,  beyond  any  capability  of  further  improvement 
by  any  variety  of  Merino  sheep  now  existing  in  any  part  of  the 
world. 

The  history  of  the  American  Merino  commences  with  the 
present  century,  and  with  importations  of  choice  sheep  from 
Spain.  The  honor  of  the  first  importation  seems  to  belong  to  Mr. 
William  Foster,  of  Boston,  who  managed,  "  with  much  difficulty 


THE  AMERICAN   MERINO.  93 

and  risk,"  to  bring  with  him  from  Cadiz,  two  ewes  and  one  ram. 
Unfortunately  his  enterprise  came  to  naught,  for  presenting  these 
valuable  and  costly  sheep  to  a  friend,  this  friend  made  them  into 
mutton  and  ate  them.  This  same  friend  afterwards  paid  $1,000 
for  a  Merino  ram.  One  ram  was  imported  in  1801,  and  was  used 
on  the  farm  of  a  French  gentleman,  Mr.  Delessert,  near  Kingston, 
N.  Y.  This  animal  weighed  138  Ibs.,  and  his  fleece,  well  washed 
in  cold  water,  weighed  8  Ibs.  8  ozs.  He  was  a  very  fine  ram,  and 
finally  founded  a  valuable  flock  on  the  farm  of  E.  J.  Dupont,  near 
Wilmington,  Del.  Later  hi  the  same  year,  Mr.  Seth  Adams,  of 
Zanesville,  Ohio,  imported  a  pair  of  Spanish  Merinos,  which  re- 
ceived a  premium  at  the  fair  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural 
Society  the  next  year.  In  1802  Mr.  Livingston,  the  American 
Minister  to  France,  sent  two  pairs  of  French  Merinos  home  to  his 
farm  on  the  Hudson  Kiver.  In  1807,  Mr.  Livingston  imported 
some  choice  Spanish  ewes  from  France,  and  in  1808,  his  flock  be- 
gan to  acquire  a  wide  reputation,  his  rams  selling  for  $150  each, 
and  half-blood  ewes  and  rams  for  $12  each.  In  1802,  Colonel 
Humphreys,  the  American  Minister  to  Spain,  sent  25  rams  and  75 
ewes,  selected  from  the  choicest  flocks  in  Spain,  to  Derby,  Con- 
necticut. From  what  particular  family  of  Merinos  these  sheep  were 
selected,  does  not  appear,  the  evidence,  however,  seems  to  point  to 
the  fact  that  they  were  Infantados,  or  sheep  from  tlie  flock  of  the 
Duke  of  Infantado,  one  of  the  chief  grandees  of  Spain  at  that 
period.  This  flock  was  bred  and  improved  by  Col.  Humphreys, 
with  much  success.  At  the  death  of  this  gentleman,  in  1818,  his 
flock  was  scattered,  and  only  two  or  three  then  obscure  farmers  had 
the  luck,  or  precaution,  to  preserve  them  pure  and  distinct.  On 
the  rise  of  the  Merinos  into  their  future  high  reputation,  these  for- 
tunate persons  were  brought  into  notice  as  the  possessors  of  flocks 
of  pure  Merino  sheep.  But  the  most  extensive  and  noteworthy 
importation,  and  that  which  gave  form  and  character  to  the 
American  Merinos,  was  that  of  the  Hon.  Wm.  Jarvis,  the  Ameri- 
can Consul  at  Lisbon,  in  1809  and  1810.  This  consisted  of  3,850 
sheep  of  the  flocks  of  Paulars,  Negrettis,  Aqueirres,  and  Montarcos 
of  Spain.  These  flocks,  consisting  of  nearly  50,000  head,  had 
been,  for  political  reasons,  confiscated  and  sold  by  the  Spanish 
government,  with  other  property  of  the  four  grandees  who  had 
owned  them. 

Of  the  imported  sheep,  1,500  came  to  New  York,  1,000  to  Bos- 
ton, and  the  remainder  to  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Alexandria, 
Norfolk,  Richmond,  Portland,  Wiscasset,  and  Portsmouth.  An- 
other shipment  of  2,500  followed  in  1810,  and  were  distributed 


94  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

between  New  York  and  Boston.  These  sheep  were  of  the  prime 
flocks  of  Spain,  and  Spain's  loss  was  our  gain.  Mr.  Jarvis  re- 
served 350  of  the  sheep  for  his  own  use.  A  few  other  minor  im- 
portations of  Spanish  sheep  were  made  by  other  parties  in  1810  and 
1811.  The  knowledge  that  we  had  thus  obtained  the  very  best 
sheep  in  the  world,  started  a  speculative  fever,  which  was  increased 
by  the  war  with  England  in  1812,  when  Merino  wool  sold  for 
$2.50  a  pound.  Imported  rams  were  eagerly  purchased  for  $1,000 
to  $1,500  each,  and  ewes  sold  for  $1,000  a  head.  Many  flocks  of 
pure  or  grade  sheep  were  started  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and 
much  care  was  taken  in  the  breeding  of  them.  This  lasted  until 
the  peace  of  1815,  when  sheep  that  were  valued  at  $1,000  a  head, 
in  1809,  sold  for  $1.00,  and  of  course  all  interest  in  breeding  then 
ceased.  Afterwards,  under  the  stimulus  of  various  protective  tar- 
iffs, the  business  revived,  and  fine  wool-growing  again  attracted 
attention. 

In  1824,  77  Saxon  Merino  sheep  were  imported  by  G.  &  T. 
Searle,  of  Boston,  and  this  was  followed  by  several  other  importa- 
tions by  the  same  parties.  By  bad  management  much  loss  resulted 
to  the  importer;.,  and  in  consequence  of  the  poor  quality  of  the 
sheep,  the  whole  business  was  a  failure  for  all  coocerned,  includ- 
ing the  purchasers.  The  inferiority  of  the  Saxon  breed  was  mani- 
fest, and  these  sheep,  which  yielded  a  fleece  of  but  2-£  to  3  Ibs.  per 
head,  could  not  compete  with  the  Spanish  sheep,  which  produced 
4J-  Ibs.  of  well  washed  wool  per  head,  of  nearly  equal  value,  al- 
though not  quite  so  fine  as  the  Saxon  wool.  The  Saxon  sheep 
have  all  disappeared  since  1846.  Then  the  American  Merino  came 
into  general  favor.  This  class  of  sheep,  in  1840  to  1845,  consisted 
of  several  families  of  distinctly  marked  varieties,  due  chiefly  to  the 
various  courses  of  breeding  followed  by  their  several  owners.  The 
distinguishing  peculiarities  of  these  families  consisted  mainly  in 
their  size  and  hight  of  carcass,  length  and  fineness  of  wool,  the 
pendulous  dewlaps  and  skinfolds  of  the  rams,  and  the  amount  of 
yolk  in  the  fleece,  and  its  consequent  greater  weight  and  darker 
color.  Up  to  the  period  in  question,  the  choicest  flocks  were  to 
be  found  in  New  England,  on  account  of  the  greater  care  there 
taken  in  breeding.  Some  of  the  Connecticut  and  Vermont  breed- 
ers had  taken  great  pains  to  improve  their  flocks,  and  much  emu- 
lation existed  amongst  them  in  this  respect.  Gradually,  differ- 
ences became  merged  and  blended  by  the  continued  purchase  of 
rams  by  the  owners  of  defective  flocks,  from  the  more  careful 
breeders,  and  finally  only  the  two  families,  the  Paulars  and  the 
Infantados  continued  to  be  bred  as  distinct  in  all  parts  of  the 


INCREASE  OF  SIZE  AND  FLEECE. 


95 


country.  Since  then  these  separate  families,  their  crosses,  and  those 
between  them  and  other  pure  flocks,  have  been  greatly  improved. 
The  carcass  has  become  larger  and  heavier,  and  the  fleece  has 
been  increased  in  weight.  This  is  shown  by  the  following  table, 
taken  from  a  more  extensive  one  published  about  70  years  ago  by 
Petri,  who  visited  Spain  for  the  express  purpose  of  examining  the 
Spanish  sheep,  and  from  some  measurements  made  by  the  Hon. 
H.  S.  Randall,  of  Cortland,  K  Y.,  and  published  in  his  valuable 
work  on  "  Fine  Wool  Sheep  Husbandry,"  as  well  as  from  number- 
less well  authenticated  weights  of  fleeces.  The  table  is  as  follows : 


NAMES  OF  FLOCKS. 


Negretti  Ram 

"       Ewe 

Infantaclo  Ram 

"         Ewe 

Guadeloupe  Ram 

"  Ewe 

Estantes  of  Sierra  de  Somo  Ram. 
H        tt      tt        K        u      Ewe. 
Small  Estantes  Ram. . . 

Ewe   

American  Merino  Ram 

Ewe 

Ewe... 

"  "        Ewe... 


Ibs. 

97 

67 
100^ 

70 

97V 

69 


42 
30 
122 
114 
122 
100 


8       8 


in. 


These  differences,  it  will  be  observed,  occur  in  those  respects 
which  add  greatly  to  the  value  of  the  animal,  the  heavier  weights 
of  carcass,  the  shorter  neck,  the  shorter  legs,  and  the  very  greatly 
increased  width  of  loin.  All  these  points  of  improvement  tend  to 
show  an  animal  of  excellent  physical  vigor  and  constitution. 

As  to  the  fleece  :  in  1800  to  1813,  the  imported  Merinos  yielded 
3£  to  4  Ibs.  of  brook-washed  wool,  in  the  ewe,  and  6  to  7  Ibs.  in  the 
ram.  The  heaviest  fleeced  ram  imported,  that  of  Mr.  Dupont, 
produced  8£  Ibs.  of  brook- washed  wool.  In  1845  the  product  had 
increased  to  5  Ibs.  for  some  small  flocks,  and  9  Ibs.  for  rams.  Mr. 
Stephen  Atwood,  of  Vermont,  reported  in  this  year  that  his  heavi- 
est ewe's  fleece  was  6  Ibs.  6  oz.,  and  his  heaviest  ram's  fleece,  12 
Ibs.  4  oz.  In  1849,  a  ram,  belonging  to  Mr.  Randall,  produced  13 
Ibs.  3  oz.  of  well  washed  wool.  Up  to  this  period  the  Merinos 
had  been  under  a  heavy  cloud,  and  improvement  had  not  occurred 
so  rapidly  as  it  has  done  since  then.  The  weights  of  the  fleeces  of 


9<5  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

those  early  days  of  the  American  Merinos  are  far  surpassed  now, 
and  the  average  of  some  small  flocks  reaches  over  10  pounds  of 
washed  wool.  Many  remarkable  reports  of  recent  shearings  might 
be  selected  from  various  agricultural  journals,  which  go  to  show 
a  greatly  increased  production  of  wool  per  head,  and  the  reports 
may  doubtless  be  accepted  as  in  the  main  correct.  In  the  Ohio 
Farmer  of  June  19th,  1875,  are  reported  weights  of  some  fleeces  of 
pure-bred  American  Merinos,  viz  :  of  a  flock  of  44,  an  aged  ram's 
fleece  weighed  20  pounds ;  34  yearling  ewes'  fleeces  weighed  410 
Ibs.  3  oz.,  an  average  of  over  12  pounds,  and  9  aged  ewes'  fleeces, 
108  Ibs.  7  oz.,  an  average  of  12  pounds.  The  wool  was  3  inches 
long,  of  a  clear  white  color,  and  therefore  free  from  excessive 
yolk.  Also  of  a  flock  of  80 ;  19  ram  lambs,  average  age  13J- 
months,  sheared  325J  Ibs.,  average  17  Ibs.  2  oz.  per  fleece;  13 
rams,  2  to  6  years  old,  sheared  225£,  or  17  Ibs.  5  oz.  per  fleece ;  48 
ewes  produced  668  Ibs.  6  oz.,  or  14  Ibs.  nearly  per  fleece.  The 
extreme  weights  of  the  ram  lambs'  fleeces  were  from  14  Ibs.  to  20 
Ibs. ;  of  the  rams,  14  Ibs.  to  24  Ibs.  4  oz.,  and  of  the  ewes,  12  Ibs. . 
to  18  Ibs.  These  fleeces,  being  doubtless  unwashed,  would  shrink 
one-third  in  washing.  In  the  Michigan  Farmer  of  July,  — ,  1875, 
the  weight  of  16  fleeces  is  reported  at  168£  Ibs.  of  washed  wool, 
an  average  of  10i  Ibs.  each ;  10  ewes  yielded  91  Ibs.. ;  3  yearling- 
rams  produced  45 J-  Ibs.,  and  three  yearling  ewes  32  Ibs.  The 
Detroit  Tribune,  about  the  same  time,  reports  a  flock  of  43 
ewes  and  wethers  which  produced  399  Ibs.,  an  average  of 
about  9^  Ibs.  of  washed  wool.  Seven  yearling  rams  sheared 
lOOi  Ibs.,  being  13  months'  growth  of  wool;  one  of  these  fleeces 
weighed  15  Ibs.,  and  the  sheep  after  shearing  weighed  49  Ibs.  One 
6-year  ram  sheared  19  Ibs.  unwashed  wool.  Another  flock  of  33 
ewes  produced  318  Ibs.  of  wool,  washed  on  the  sbeeps'  backs  9 
days  previously.  These  reports  are  selected  at  haphazard,  upon 
casually  glancing  over  a  few  of  the  papers  which  are  in  the  habit 
of  publishing  news  of  this  character,  sent  by  known  correspond- 
ents. In  all  these  cases  the  names  and  addresses  are  given  with 
the  reports,  but  are  withheld  here,  as  they  are  in  no  way  excep- 
tional, or  surpass  the  reports  of  the  flocks  of  numberless  other 
farmers  or  breeders.  Indeed,  many  thoroughly  trustworthy  re- 
ports are  constantly  being  given  of  greater  weights  of  fleece  than 
any  of  these.  The  following  reports  of  the  weights  of  the  premi- 
um fleeces  sheared  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  American  Wool- 
Growers'  Association  of  1875,  may  be  given  as  finally  conclusive 
of  the  fact  under  consideration,  viz  :  the  gradual  improvement  and 
present  high  value  of  the  American  Merino  in  the  hands  of  Ameri- 


DESCRIPTION   OF  THE  AMERICAN   MERINO.  97 

can  breeders,  until  it  has  now  no  superior  in  the  world  as  a  wool 
bearer,  or  as  an  improver  of  inferior  races  of  sheep. 

Weight  of  Sheep.  Weight  of  Fleece.  Age  of  Fleece. 

1st  Premium  Ram ...         180  54  Ibs.  29  Ibs.                 11  mo.  21  d:iys. 

2nd        "          "      148  Ibs.  23  Ibs.  13  oz.          1  yr.     4    " 

1st         "         Ewe 108  Ibs.  17lbs.    3  oz.        11  mo.  22    " 

2-yr.  old  Ewe  uot  entered  for  pr.  22  Ibs.   8  oz.         1  yr.      5    " 

It  is  impossible,  in  the  limited  space  that  can  be  here  devoted  to 
this  breed,  to  rehearse  the  means  by  which  these  sheep  have  been 
gradually  brought  to  this  excellence.  For  these  details  the  reader 
who  would  study  the  subject  of  fine-wool  sheep  breeding,  is  referred 
to  the  excellent  work  of  Mr.  Randall  before  referred  to,  in  which 
it  is  treated  of  at  length.  The  portrait  on  the  next  page  gives 
a  remarkably  accurate  general  view  of  a  first  class  American 
Merino  ram.  It  represents  the  ram  "  Golden  Fleece,"  bred  and 
owned  by  E.  S.  Stowell,  Cornwall,  Vermont 

The  description  of  a  high  brel  American  Merino,  of  such  excel- 
lence as  may  be  readily  found  in  numerous  flocks  at  the  present 
time,  may  be.  summed  up  as  follows,  giving  prominence  to  the 
several  most  important  characteristics,  viz : 

TJie  Carcass  should  be  plump,  medium  size,  round,  deep,  not 
long  in  proportion  to  roundness,  the  head  and  neck  short  and 
thick  ;  the  back  should  be  straight  and  broad,  the  breast  and  but- 
tock full ;  the  legs  short,  well  apart,  an9  strong,  with  heavy  fore- 
arm and  full  twist.  This  compact  figure  indicates  a  hardy  con- 
stitution, ease  of  keeping,  and  good  feeding  properties. 

Skin. — The  skin  should  be  of  a  deep  rich  rose-color,  thin,  mel- 
low, loose,  and  elastic  on  the  body.  This  indicates  a  healthy,  well 
conditioned  animal.  A  pale  or  tawny  skin  indicates  impurity  of 
blood,  or  at  least  weakness  of  constitution,  and  is  therefore  ob- 
jectionable. 

Folds  and  Wrinkles. — These  are  permissibb  to  a  certain  extent. 
The  fashion  in  this  regard  has  doubtless  passed  beyond  the  bounds 
of  wisdom,  and  excessive  wrinkling  or  folding  of  the  skin  is  un- 
sightly and  useless,  if  not  worse.  In  shearing,  it  causes  a  waste  of 
time,  and  gives  no  adequate  return  in  wool.  A  deep,  soft,  plaited 
dewlap  on  both  ewes  and  rams,  and  some  slight  wrinkles  on  the 
neck  of  the  ram,  satisfied  the  early  breeders  in  this  respect  While 
heavy  neck-folds  on  the  ram,  and  short  ones  back  of  the  elbow 
and  on  the  rump,  are  tolerated  by  breeders  at  the  present  time,  yet 
it  is  simply  fashion,  and  adds  nothing  to  the  value  of  the  animal, 
but  on  the  contrary  is  dearly  paid  for  in  the  increased  cost  of 
shearing.  An  exception  to  this  may  be  taken  in  respect  of  rams 
5 


98 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


THE  FLEECE.  99 

to  be  used  in  improving  the  poor,  smooth-skinned  native  race 
common  on  the  western  plains,  in  which  case  a  heavy  yolked  and 
much  wrinkled  ram  may  be  found  desirable. 

The  Fleece. — A  sheep  bred  exclusively,  or  chiefly,  for  wool^  must 
necessarily  be  valued  in  proportion  to  the  value  of  the  fleece.  The 
wool  of  a  pure-bred  Merino  of  any  value,  should  stand  at  right 
angles  to  the  skin,  presenting  a  dense,  smooth,  even  surface  on  the 
exterior,  opening  nowhere  but  in  those  natural  cracks  or  divisions 
which  separate  the  fleece  into  masses.  These  masses  should  not 
be  small  in  size,  or  they  indicate  excessive  fineness  of  fleece ;  a  " 
quarter  of  an  inch  is  the  limit  in  this  respect ;  nor  too  large,  lest 
the  wool  be  coarse  and  harsh.  The  length  should  be  such  as,  corn^ 
bined  with  thickness  of  staple,  will  give  the  greatest  weight  of 
fleece.  Medium  wool  is  generally  in  greater  demand  than  fine 
wool,  and  it  is  more  profitably  produced.  Two  to  three  inches  is 
probably  the  most  desirable  length  of  fleece  for  profit.  A  change, 
however,  is  taking  place  in  this  respect,  since  the  practice  of 
combing  Merino  wool  has  become  general,  and  three  inches 
and  over  is  a  frequently  desired  length  of  fiber.  It  is  not 
desirable  to  have  the  face  covered  with  wool  long  enough  to  fold 
up  in  the  fleece.  If  the  eyes  are  covered  with  such  wool,  the  sheep 
is  either  blinded,  or  the  wool  must  be  kept  clipped  close.  The 
ears  should  be  small,  with  a  coat  of  soft  mossy  hair  about  half 
way  to  the  roots,  and  for  the  remainder,  covered  with  wool.  A 
naked  ear  is  very  objectionable.  Evenness  in  quality  in  every 
part  of  the  sheep  is  very  desirable,  if  air  growing  up  through  the 
wool  on  the  thighs,  the  neck-folds,  or  scattered  through  the  fleece 
here  and  there,  is  not  to  be  allowed.  The  wool  should  be  sound, 
that  is,  of  even  strength  from  end  to  end  of  the  fiber.  It  should 
be  highly  elastic  and  wrinkled,  curved  or  wavy.  The  number  of 
these  curls,  or  waves,  to  the  inch,  is  not  so  much  a  test  of  excel- 
lence as  their  regularity  and  beauty  of  curvature.  A  folding  back 
of  the  fiber  upon  itself  is  not  so  desirable  as  a  gentler  curve.  (See 
Chapter  on  Wool). 

Pliancy  and  Softness  to  the  feeling  in  handling,  is  an  excellent 
test  of  quality,  so  much  prized  by  manufacturers,  that  practiced 
buyers  will  sometimes  form  an  accurate  judgment  of  a  fleece  by 
handling  it  in  the  dark  with  gloved  hands. 

Yolk. — To  what  extent  the  yolk  should  exist  in  the  wool  of  the 
Merino,  is  a  matter  of  dispute,  and  in  some  degree  a  matter  of 
taste.  A  certain  portion  of  yolk  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the 
existence  of  a  good  fleece,  and  beyond  this  it  is  questionable  if  any 


100  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

excess  of  yolk  answers  any  good  purpose.  This  is  considered  at 
some  length  in  the  Chapter  on  Wool,  where  it  naturally  belongs. 
When  it  is  in  such  excessive  quantity  as  in  a  fleece  which  weighed 
19|  Ibs,  before  washing,  and  only  4  Ibs.  afterwards,  it  is  decidedly 
objectionable,  except  in  the  case  of  a  rain  chosen  to  impart  greater 
yolkiness  to  a  flock  which  is  deficient  in  this  respect.  In  general, 
as  wool  is  the  object  sought,  no  more  yolk  is  necessary  than  the 
quantity  required  to  promote  the  growth  of  the  fleece  and  lo  keep 
it  in  good  condition,  soft,  pliant,  and  thoroughly  well  lubricated. 

FOREIGN  BREEDS.— LONG- WOOL   SHEEP. 

Long-wool  sheep  are  properly  natives  of  the  rich  low-lands  of 
England,  which  are  productive  of  abundant,  succulent,  nutritious 
pasture.  But  there  have  been  great  improvements  in  agriculture 
during  the  past  century,  which  have  enabled  fanners  lo  produce 
enormous  crops  of  clover,  artificial  grasses,  and  roots,  and  to  pur- 
chase large  supplies  of  rich  concentrated  foods,  such  as  the  various 
oil-cakes.  As  one  result  of  this  improved  agriculture,  the  long- 
wool  sheep  have  been  taken  from  the  alluvial  lands  where  they 
originated,  to  the  uplands,  where  they  have  greatly  increased  in 
number,  and  also  improved  in  character.  The  fact  that  these  large 
bodied,  heavy  fleeced  sheep  have  been  found  far  more  profitable 
than  the  lighter  short-wool  sheep,  has  been  the  all-sufficient  cause 
of  this  adaptation  of  the  race  to  new  conditions,  for  profit  is  the 
moving  power  in  every  industry,  and  what  is,  is  simply  because  it 
is  profitable,  and  for  no  other  reason  in  this  day  of  eager  search 
for  increased  comfort  and  wealth.  The  profit  of  long-wool  sheep 
consists  not  only  in  their  weight  of  meat  and  fleece,  but  in  their 
rapid  growth  and  early  maturity.  In  the  change  of  locality  allud- 
ed to,  and  from  circumstances  of  feed  and  management,  some  of 
the  ancient  breeds  have  disappeared  altogether,  and  other  breeds 
have  been  much  changed  by  extensive  crossing  with  the  most  popu- 
lar and  highly  bred  of  them.  The  Ion  ir- wool  sheep  of  the  present 
time  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  ;  one  of  which  still  remains 
localized  in  low  rich  alluvial  soils,  and  drained  marshes  of  certain 
parts  of  England;  this,  includes  the  Lincoln  and  the  Romney 
Marsh  breeds.  The  other  class  belongs  to  dry  arable  plains,  or 
farms  devoted  to  grain,  grass,  and  root  crops,  and  other  specialties 
of  mixed  farming.  This  class  includes  the  Leicester,  Cotswold, 
and  Oxford-down  breeds. 

THE  LINCOLN  is  the  heaviest  bodied  sheep  in  existence.  In 
1836  a  three-shear  sheep  of  this  breed,  (40  months  old,  or  about 


Tllli  LIKCOLV  SHEEP. 


101 


102 

that  age),  was  slaughtered  in  England,  which  dressed  96i  Ibs.  the 
quarter;  a  two-shear  sheep  dressed  91  Ibs.  per  quarter,  and  a 
yearling  dressed  71  Ibs.  per  quarter.  In  a  report  on  Lincoln  sheep, 
it  is  stated  that  thirty  14-inonths-old  wether  lambs,  slaughtered  at 
Lincoln  Fair,  averaged  140  Ibs.  each,  dressed  weight,  and  100  to- 
gether of  the  lambs  clipped  14  Ibs.  of  washed  wool  apiece.  The 
usual  practice  of  the  Lincolnshire  breeders  is  to  feed  the  sheep 
until  about  two  years  old,  when  they  will  have  yielded  a  second 
fleece  weighing  10  to  14  pounds,  and  will  dress  120  to  160  Ibs. 
dead  weight  j'or  the  butcher.  The  wool  of  this  breed  is  very  long 
and  lustrous,  measuring  nine  inches  and  over.  The  origin  of  the 
present  highly  improved  breed,  was  a  race  of  heavy-bodied  sheep 
which  in  its  pure  state  is  now  practically  extinct.  It  inhabited  the 
low  alluvial  flats  of  Lincolnshire,  and  the  adjoining  localities,  on 
the  eastern  coasts  of  England.  These  sheep  were  large  and  coarse, 
with  a  long,  ragged,  oily  fleece,  which  nearly  sv;ept  the  ground. 
They  fed  slowly,  but  made  much  inward  fat,  and  their  meat  was 
well  flavored,  fine  grained,  juicy,  and  not  too  much  overlaid  with 
fat  on  the  outside.  A  century  ago  this  was  the  established  char- 
acter of  these  sheep.  When  the  improved  Leicesters  of  Mr.  Bake- 
well  came  into  notoriety,  the  intelligent  Lincolnshire  breeders  ob- 
tained some  of  his  rams,  and  by  admixture  of  their  blood,  in  time 
established  a  distinctly  new  breed.  In  connection  with  a  system 
of  farming,  in  which  heavy  crops  of  roots  and  green  fodder  were 
the  chief  productions,  this  improved  breed  became  fixed  in  its 
character  as  the  heaviest  producers  of  mutton  and  wool  in  the 
world.  In  one  instance  26i  Ibs.  of  wool  was  taken  from  a  14- 
months  old  lamb.  From  1862  to  1870,  the  majority  of  prizes  for 
long- wool  sheep  at  English  fairs,  were  taken  by  the  Lincolns,  but 
it  was  not  until  the  former  date,  that  the  breed  was  given  a  dis- 
tinct place  as  a  separate  class  at  these  shows.  Since  then  it  has 
achieved  great  prominence,  and  become  very  popular  for  crossing 
upon  other  breeds,  for  the  production  of  feeding  sheep,  and  for  its 
yield  of  long,  lustrous,  and  worsted  wools.  The  Lincoln  requires 
the  best  and  richest  soils,  and  succulent  herbage,  and  can  only 
thrive  under  the  best  management  and  veiy  high  farming.  At 
present  it  is  questionable  if  we  in  this  country  have  any  place  in 
our  agriculture  which  this  sheep  can  profitably  fill,  unless  it  be  in 
a  very  few  instances,  where  the  highest  skill  of  the  breeder  is  ex- 
ercised under  peculiarly  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and  climate. 
A  fine  flock  of  these  sheep  was  imported  by  Mr.  Richard  Gibson, 
of  London,  Canada,  and  has  been  carefully  and  successfully  culti- 
vated by  him.  A  portion  of  Mr.  Gibson's  flock  has  been  recently 


THE  ItOHNEY  MARSH  SHEEP. 


103 


104 

purchased  by  Mr.  William  A.  King,  of  Minneapolis,  Minn.  Mr. 
George  Grant,  of  Kansas,  also  has  a  Hock.  Their  adaptability  to 
our  climate  is  therefore  in  a  fab*  way  of  being  thoroughly  tested. 

THE  ROMNEY  MARSH  SHEEP.— This  breed  is  also  an  inhabitant 
of  low,  alluvial  lands.  Its  home  is  in  south-eastern  England,  in 
the  extensive  marshes  of  the  county  of  Kent,  which  are  ditched 
and  diked  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  Holland.  It  has  ex- 
isted there  from  time  immemorial,  and  has  fed  on  the  rich  clay 
lands  which  are  so  productive  of  herbage  as  to  be  capable  of  carry- 
ing 14  sheep  to  the  acre.  This  breed  has  also  been  much  improved 
by  crossing  with  Leicester  rams.  It  is  hardier  than  the  Lincoln, 
and  survives  much  neglect.  It  is  rarely  sheltered,  even  hi  severe 
weather,  and  the  lambs  are  generally  pastured  during  the  winter 
in  the  stubbles  upon  the  adjoining  uplands,  where  they  undergo 
many  privations.  It  is  not  improbable  that  this  hitherto  neglected, 
but  valuable  and  hardy  sheep,  could  find  suitable  homes  upon  our 
eastern  coasts,  and  rich  river  flats,  where  it  would  serve  a  better 
purpose  than  the  more  highly  bred  and  delicate  Leicester,  in  im- 
proving, or  displacing,  our  less  valuable  native  sheep.  The  charac- 
teristics of  the  Romuey  Marsh  sheep  are :  a  thick,  broad  head  and 
neck,  long  carcass,  flat  sides,  broad  loin,  full  and  broad  thigh, 
neither  heavy  nor  full  fore-quarter,  thick,  strong  legs  and  broad 
feet;  wool  long,  somewhat  coarse,  and  coarsest  on  the  thighs; 
much  inside  fat,  and  a  favorite  animal  with  the  butcher.  There  is 
a  tuft  of  wool  on  the  forehead.  The  fleece  weighs  from  7  to  10 
pounds,  is  of  long  staple,  sound  quality,  and  bright  and  glossy ; 
it  is  in  demand  by  French  and  Dutch  manufacturers  for  a  sort  of 
mohair  fabric  known  as  "  cloth  of  gold,"  (Drap  ffor).  At  three 
years  old  the  wethers  dress  from  100  to  120  Ibs.,  and  the  ewes 
from  70  to  90  Ibs.  After  a  moderate  amount  of  crossing  with  the 
Leicester,  it  was  found  that  to  persevere  further  in  this  direction 
tended  to  make  these  sheep  less  hardy,  and  the  cross  was  at  once 
abandoned.  Inter-breeding  amongst  the  cross-bred  sheep  main- 
tained the  improvement  without  sacrificing  the  hardiness  and 
vigor  of  constitution,  which  renders  this  breed  so  well  adapted  to 
its  bleak  and  wind-swept  pastures. 

THE  LEICESTER.— It  was  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago  that 
the  old  Leicester  sheep  fell  into  the  hands  of  Mr.  Robert  Bakewell. 
They  were  then  large,  heavy,  coarse  animals,  having  meat  of  a 
poor  flavor,  a  long  and  thin  carcass  with  flat  sides,  large  bones,  and 
thick,  rough  legs.  They  were  poor  feeders,  and  at  two  or  three 
years  old  made  100  to  120  Ibs.  of  mutton.  The  wool  was  long  and 


THE   LEICESTER   SHEEP. 


105 


106  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

coarse,  and  of  only  moderate  value.  By  a  course  of  breeding, 
about  which  he  was  very  reticent  even  to  his  friends,  and  which 
he  kept  secret  from  other  breeders,  Mr.  Bakewell  totally  changed 
the  character  of  these  sheep,  and  built  up  for  himself  a  reputation 
as  a  successful  breeder,  which  is  second  to  that  of  no  other  in  the 
world.  Of  his  system  of  breeding,  the  most  that  is  known  is,  that 
he  commenced  with  the  inferior,  old  Leicester^,  selecting  the  best 
of  them  he  could  find.  He  apparently  used  any  animal  whatever, 
without  reference  to  breed  or  color,  nor  did  he  regard  relationship, 
if  he  considered  those  coupled  together  would  be  most  likely  to 
produce  the  results  that  he  wished  to  attain  in  the  offspring. 
His  object  was  to  produce  an  animal  that  would  yield  in  the 
shortest  time,  and  with  the  least  consumption  of  feed,  the  largest 
amount  of  flesh  and  fat,  meanwhile  not  neglecting  the  fleece.  His 
ideal  sheep  was  to  him  precisely  what  the  desired  Short-horn  was 
to  the  Culley  Brothers,  Mr.  Bates,  or  Mr.  Booth ;  and  all  these 
breeders  gave  their  whole  soul  to  the  attainment  of  their  one 
single  object.  The  Culley  Brothers  were  pupils  of  Mr.  Bakewell, 
and  it  is  but  just  to  give  him  some  share  of  the  honor  attained  by 
these  originators  of  the  Short-horn.  Each  of  these  breeders  bred 
in-and-in,  both  frequently  and  closely,  and  each  of  them  went  out- 
side of  the  breed  he  was  building  up  and  improving  for  foreign 
blood,  when  anything  was  to  be  gained  by  it.  It  is  stated  of  Mr. 
Bakewell  that  he  used  sheep  of  six  or  seven  different  breeds,  and 
one  visitor  to  his  establishment,  reported  that,  in  going  about  the 
stables  alone,  early  one  morning,  before  Mr.  Bakewell  had  risen, 
he  saw  a  black  ram,  but  a  very  magnificent  animal,  hidden  away 
in  a  pen.  In  course  of  time  his  success  was  recognized  by  the  best 
test — that  of  the  market  value  of  his  sheep.  He  began  in  1755 ;  in 
1760  his  rams  were  let  for  an  annual  sum  of  about  $4  each.  In 
1780  he  received  $50  for  the  season's  use  of  a  ram.  In  1784  the 
price  was  raised  to  $525.  In  1786  one  ram  was  let  for  $1,575.  In 
1789  he  received  $6,300  for  the  use  of  three  rams,  all  born  at  one 
birth  ;  $10,500  for  seven  others ;  and  $15,750  for  the  use  of  the 
remainder  of  his  flock.  Twenty-two_hundred  dollars  was  paid  by 
each  of  two  breeders  for  the  use  of  one  ram  for  their  flocks  alone, 
he  reserving  one-third  of  his  use  for  himself,  making  the  yearly 
value  of  this  one  ram  equal  to  $6,600.  After  his  death,  Bake  well's 
system  of  close  breeding  was  followed  by  his  successors,  but  with 
the  effect  of  reducing  the  value  of  the  breed  to  the  farmer.  The 
sheep  became  delicate,  and  weakened  in  constitution,  reduced  in 
size,  less  prolific,  and  less  careful  of  their  lambs.  New  blood, 
chiefly  of  the  hardier  Cotswold,  has  been  of  late  years  introduced 


THE  COTSWOLD  SHEEP.  107 

with  the  effect  of  restoring  their  lost  qualities.  The  modern  im- 
proved Leicester  is  without  horns;  with  white  face  and  legs, a 
small,  fine  head,  bare  on  the  poll ;  a  large,  bright,  and  very  promi- 
nent eye ;  square  and  deep  neck  and  shoulders ;  straight,  flat,  broad 
back ;  deep  body ;  hind  quarters  tapering  somewhat  to  the  tail,  and 
not  so  square  as  in  the-  Cotswold ;  clean  legs,  and  fine  bone.  The 
flesh  is  good,  but  overloaded  with  outside  fat.  The  fleece  is  fine, 
glossy,  silky,  white,  and  of  but  moderate  length,  averaging  7  to  8 
pounds  in  weight.  The  skin  is  thin,  soft,  and  elastic,  and  of  a 
very  delicate  pinkish  tinge,  when  the  animal  is  in  full  health.  The 
Leicester  cannot  by  any  means  be  called  a  hardy  sheep,  as  it  requires 
good  keep,  careful  shelter,  and  skillful  treatment  to  maintain  it  in 
thriving  condition.  When  ailing  it  gives  way  at  once,  and  de- 
clines rapidly.  It  matures  rapidly  and  early,  and  at  twelve  months 
old  when  well  fed,  will  dress  100  pounds,  and  at  two  years  reaches 
a  weight  of  150  pounds.  A  four-year-old  ram  in  prime  condition 
has  weighed  380  pounds  live  weight.  For  use  in  this  country,  the 
Leicester  cannot  compete  with  the  Cotswold,  nor  is  it  fitted  in  any 
way  to  become  the  farmer's  sheep,  excepting  hi  very  rare  cases, 
when  its  services  might  be  desired  to  refine  a  Cotswold  cross  in  the 
hands  of  a  breeder  who  thoroughly  understands  his  business. 

THE  COTSWOLD. — This  breed  has  become  so  common  in  Ameri- 
ca, and  has  been  bred  so  extensively  without  fresh  importations  of 
new  blood,  that  it  may  well  be  adopted  as  a  native  sheep.  Many 
excellent  flocks  are  now  self-sustaining,  and  under  their  American 
nativity,  lose  nothing  of  their  original  excellence.  The  Maple 
Shade  flock,  originally  the  property  of  Mr.  John  D.  Wing,  of 
Dutchess  County,  N.  Y.,  but  some  years  ago  divided,  and  now 
owned  by  other  parties,  is  one  of  many  instances  of  the  successful 
acclimatization  of  this  most  valuable  sheep.  The  Cotswold'  has 
an  ancient  history.  It  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Eng- 
land from  Spain,  by  Eleanora,  Queen  of  Henry  II,  of  England,  in 
the  twelfth  century.  Although  there  is  nothing  more  than  tradi- 
tion to  support  this,  yet  there  is  some  corroboration  of  it  in  the 
fact  that  in  Spam  there  has  long  existed,  and  is  now,  a  breed  of 
coarse,  long  wool  sheep  not  unlike  the  original  Cotswold  hi  some 
respects.  It  is  known,  however,  that  in  fifty  years  after  this  early 
date,  the  wool  of  the  Cotswold  sheep  was  a  source  of  material 
wealth,  and  was  jealously  guarded  by  law.  Three  centuries  after 
this,  (in  1467),  permission  was  granted  by  the  English  king,  Ed- 
ward IY,  as  a  royal  favor,  to  export  some  of  these  sheep  to  Spain. 
They  were  originally  very  coarse  animals,  with  thick,  heavy 
fleece,  well  adapted  to  their  home  upon  the  bleak  exposed  Cots- 


108 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


DESCEIPTIOK  OF  THE  COTSWOLD.  109 

wold  hills.  So  valuable  and  staple  a  breed  could  not  long  remain 
without  improvement.  Naturally,  the  sweet  nutritious  herbage 
of  the  limestone  soil  covering  these  hills,  favored  this  improve- 
ment, and  as  the  pastures  became  enclosed,  and  agriculture  im- 
proved in  character,  the  flocks  improved  with  it.  When  the  Lei- 
cester became  the  most  popular  sheep  of  England,  it  was  made  to 
assist  in  this  course  of  improvement  of  the  Cotswolds.  It  gave  to 
the  breed  a  better  quality,  a  smoothness  and  refinement,  and  a 
greater  aptitude  to  fatten,  while  it  did  not  lessen  its  ancient  hardi- 
ness of  constitution.  The  modern  Cotswold  is  still  capable  of  en- 
during hardship  and  exposure,  and  is  at  home  on  all  sorts  of  soils. 
It  produces  a  large  carcass  of  excellent  mutton,  and  a  heavy  fleece 
of  valuable  combing  wool,  adapted  by  its  peculiar  character  for  a 
class  of  goods  of  wide  consumption,  it  being  in  demand  for  vari- 
ous manufactures  from  the  small  matters,  such  as  worsted  dress 
braids,  up  to  various  kinds  of  cloths  for  men's  and  women's 
garments.  Moreover  the  breed  matures  at  an  early  age.  It  is 
not  unusual  to  find  sheep  of  120  Ibs.  and  over,  at  a  year  old.  A 
full-grown  sheep,  exhibited  at  a  Christmas  cattle  market  in  Eng- 
land, dressed  344  pounds,  or  86  Ibs.  per  quarter.  The  weight  of 
the  fleece  should  average  8  Ibs.  for  a  flock  of  all  kinds,  and  some 
of  our  naturalized  flocks  surpass  this  weight  of  fleece.  Many 
ewes  have  shorn  11  Ibs.  each.  The  fleece  of  "  Champion  of  Eng- 
land," whose  portrait  is  given  on  the  opposite  page,  weighed  18 
Ibs.,  and  the  fleeces  of  the  ewes  of  the  same  flock,  weighed  from 
11  to  16  Ibs.  The  description  of  a  well  bred  Cotswold  is  as  fol- 
lows :  The  face  and  legs  are  white,  but  sometimes  dashes  of 
brown  or  gray  derived  from  the  original  stock,  may  be  found  on 
both  face  and  forelegs.  The  head  is  strong  and  massive,  with 
sometimes  a  Roman  nose,  without  horns,  and  having  a  thick  fore- 
lock of  wool  upon  the  forehead.  The  neck  and  forequarters  are 
not  so  square  and  heavy,  nor  the  brisket  so  prominent,  as  in  the 
best  Leicesters,  but  the  hind  quarters  are  square,  full,  and  broad, 
and  the  thigh  solid  and  heavy.  The  back  is  straight  and  broad, 
and  the  ribs  well  sprung,  giving  a  round  body ;  the  flanks  are 
deep;  the  legs  are  clean,  of  moderate  length,  but  the  bone  is  not 
so  fine  as  in  the  Leicester.  The  general  style  and  appearance  is 
good  and  attractive,  and  indicative  of  a  vigorous,  active,  and  hardy 
animal,  and  a  prime  mutton  sheep.  They  are  active  and  well 
fitted  for  gathering  a  living  upon  a  pasture  in  which  a  Leicester 
would  hardly  thrive.  The  lambs  are  active  and  hardy,  and  the 
ewes  are  good  mothers.  The  fleece  is  closer  upon  the  back  than 
that  of  the  Leicester,  and  only  in  aged  rams  exposes  the  skin  along 


110  THE  SHEPHEKD'S  MANUAL. 

the  middle.  The  wool  sometimes  reaches  a  length  of  9  inches,  and 
although  coarse,  is  soft  and  mellow.  In  some  of  these  sheep,  the 
fleece  is  beautifully  waved.  No  breed  is  more  valuable  for  cross- 
ing than  this.  It  has  helped  to  establish  several  permanent  cross 
breeds;  the  Oxford-downs  and  the  Shropshires  in  England;  a 
Cotswold-Merino  in  Germany,  and  another  of  this  cross,  which  is 
well  under  way  in  this  country,  and  last,  but  not  least,  a  very 
promising  cross  breed,  originated  on  the  Beacon  Farm,  Long 
Island,  by  Mr.  William  Crozier,  and  called  the  Beacon-downs.  It 
has,  moreover,  been  used  to  produce  many  cross-bred  market 
sheep  in  various  parts  of  England,  and  is  extensively  used  by  our 
sheep-raisers  in  the  production  of  market  lambs.  Being  capable 
of  adaptation  to  almost  any  locality,  and  producing  a  wool  which, 
both  in  its  pure  state  and  in  its  grades,  is  of  wide  availability  in 
the  woolen  manufacture,  it  may  justly  claim  to  be  the  most  valua- 
ble sheep  we  have  acquired,  and  to  promise  a  more  extended  use- 
fulness than  any  other  we  at  this  time  possess,  or  can  probably 
procure. 

THE  OXFORD-DOWNS.— This  is  one  of  the  newly  established 
cross-breeds,  which  has  made  a  favorable  reputation,  and  promises 
to  become  permanent.  It  has  already  been  introduced  here,  and 
has  made  its  appearance  on  several  farms,  the  owners  of  which 
possess  more  than  usual  enterprise.  It  is  classed  among  the  long- 
wool  sheep,  but  it  is  only  since  1862  that  it  has  gained  the  honor, 
or  has  been  awarded  the  justice  of  a  separate  class  at  the  English 
fairs.  It  has  rapidly  extended  its  domain  in  England,  and  as  a 
wool  and  mutton  producer,  firmly  holds  all  it  gains.  It  originated 
in  across  of  a  Cotswold  ram  upon  a  Hampshire-down  ewe,  made  in 
or  about  the  year  1830,  by  Mr.  Twynham  and  several  other  farmers, 
of  Hampshire,  England.  The  produce  was  a  sheep  heavier  than  the 
clam,  and  resembling  the  Cotswold  in  size  and  fleece.  The  wool, 
however,  was  finer  and  firmer  than  that  of  the  Cotswold,  and 
from  five  to  seven  inches  in  length.  The  first  cross  rams  and 
ewes  were  bred  together,  no  further  cross  being  made.  By  con- 
tinued care  the  best  points  have  been  preserved,  and  the  constitu- 
tion nnd  character  of  the  first  cross  have  been  maintained.  The 
result  is,  a  sheep  that  is  found  profitable  to  feed  on  a  mixed  farm  ; 
hardy,  producing  at  14  months  old  a  carcass  of  80  to  88  Ibs. ,  and  a 
fleece  of  8  or  9  Ibs.  of  wool,  which  is  in  great  demand  in  the 
worsted  manufacture.  By  good  feeding  these  weights  are  much 
increased.  At  the  Smithfield,  (London),  fat  cattle  show  of  1873, 
a  pen  of  three  22-months-old  shearlings  weighed  alive  895  Ibs. ,  or 
an  average  of  298  Ibs.  each.  Rams  have  been  known  to  shear  20 


THE   OXFORD-DOWN   SHEEP. 


Ill 


112  THE  SHEPHEKD'S  MANUAL. 

Ibs.  of  wool  for  their  first  fleece.  The  Oxford-down  has  a  head 
much  like  a  Cotswold,  with  a  tuft  on  the  forehead,  but  with  dark 
face  and  legs,  which  are  derived  from  its  other  parent,  the  Hamp- 
shire-down ;  a  thick  set  somewhat  curly  fleece,  a  round  barrel  on 
short  legs,  and  yields,  when  less  than  two  years  old,  a  mutton  con- 
sidered by  its  friends  as  superior  to  the  Southdown  of  the  same 
age,  but  inferior  to  it  when  older  than  two  years.  Its  native 
locality  is  a  district  at  the  foot  of  the  Cotswold  hills,  an  area  of 
mixed  soils,  abounding  in  springs,  and  requiring  much  draining. 
At  particular  seasons  in  the  winter,  neither  the  Cotswold  nor  the 
Southdown  could  be  made  to  thrive  upon  these  wet  soils,  but  the 
cross-bred  sheep  have  successfully  withstood  the  inconvenience 
without  being  affected  with  the  usual  disease  of  the  district,  such 
as  giddiness,  or  water  on  the  brain.  They  have  been  found  very 
profitable  feeders,  requiring  but  little  purchased  food,  and  stand- 
ing the  exposure  incident  to  folding  upon  green  crops  in  the  winter, 
without  difficulty.  Good  rams  of  this  breed  bring  about  $60  per 
head  at  the  ram  sales. 

MEDIUM   AND    SHORT-WOOL    SHEEP. 

THE  SHROPSHIRE  SHEEP. — The  Shropshire  is  one  of  the  cross- 
bred sheep  that  owes  its  origin  in  part  to  the  Cotswold,  the  other 
parent  being  an  original  breed  of  sheep  common  to  the  district, 
and  known  as  the  "  Morfe  Common  "  sheep.  This  word  "  com- 
mon "  does  not  express  quality,  but  is  used  here  as  referring  to  an 
unenclosed  tract  of  land  known  as  "common  land,"  or  public 
property;  such  tracts  formerly  existed  in  many  localities  in  Eng- 
land, and  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  early  settlements  in  New 
England.  These  sheep  of  Morfe  Common,  (which  was  a  tract  of 
600,000  acres  of  land),  were  the  original  stock  upon  which  crosses 
of  Cotswold,  and  afterwards  of  Leicester  and  Southdown,  were 
made  at  various  periods.  This  course  of  improvement  appears  to 
have  been  begun  about  1792.  From  the  unequal  admixture  of 
blood,  the  Shropshires  vary  somewhat  in  character,  sometimes 
possessing  the  character  of  a  short-wool,  and  sometimes  that  of  a 
medium-wool  sheep.  The  original  sheep  was  horned,  black  or 
brown  faced,  hardy,  and  free  from  disease,  producing  44  to  56  Ibs. 
of  mutton  to  the  carcass,  and  a  fleece  of  2  Ibs.  of  moderately  fine 
wool,  which  was  used  in  the  cloth  manufacture.  After  three- 
quarters  of  a  century  of  cultivation,  they  are  now  without  horns, 
with  faces  and  legs  of  a  dark  or  spotted  gray  color ;  thick,  meaty 
neck ;  well  shaped,  rather  small  and  fine  head ;  neat  ears  well  set 


THE  SHROPSHIRE  SHEEP. 


113 


114: 

on  the  head ;  broad,  deep  breast ;  straight  back ;  a  good,  round  bar- 
rel ;  and  clean  legs  with  strong  bone.  They  are  very  hardy,  thrive 
well  on  moderate  keep,  are  quickly  fattened,  and  produce  at  two 
years  old,  80  to  100  Ibs.,  or  even  120  Ibs.  of  excellent  meat,  which 
brings  the  highest  price  from  the  butcher.  The  ewes  are  prolific 
and-good  mothers.  The  fleece  is  heavier  than  that  of  the  South- 
down, being  longer  and  more  glossy,  and  weighs  on  the  average 
about  7  Ibs.  of  marketable  wool.  The  portraits  on  the  preceding 
page  are  of  some  members  of  a  flock  imported  from  England 
ki  1874,  by  Mr.  J.  T.  Hoyt,  of  Suisun  City,  California.  This 
sheep  possesses  many  valuable  qualities  for  our  uses,  and  promises 
to  make  a  satisfactory  farmer's  sheep  in  localities  where  medium 
wool  and  choice  mutton  are  profitable,  and  where  the  flocks  have 
to  depend  upon  pasture  for  the  greater  part  of  their  support.  Its 
close,  well  set  fleece,  and  hardy  constitution,  will  also  help  to  carry 
it  through  considerable  exposure  and  variable  weather,  without 
injury.  Prize  rams  have  sold  in  England  for  $500  each,  but  at  the 
annual  ram  sales,  the  prices  run  from  $50  to  $150.  There  are  sev- 
eral flocks  of  this  breed  kept  in  different  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  which  promise  to  become  sources  of  supply. 

THE  SOUTHDOWN.— The  modern  improved  Southdown  de- 
scended from  an  old  established  breed  of  sheep,  which  have  inhab- 
ited the  hilly  portions  of  England  from  the  most  ancient  periods 
of  known  history  of  that  countiy.  In  the  southern  part  of  the 
country,  and  in  the  counties  of  Sussex,  Kent,  Hampshire,  and 
Dorsetshire,  there  is  a  range  of  low  hills,  underlaid  with  chalk, 
which  descend  gradually  on  the  south  to  the  sea  coast,  and  on  the 
north  merge  into  rich  cultivated  lands.  These  low  hills  or 
"  Downs,"  have  a  diy  soil,  and  are  covered  with  a  rich,  sweet, 
short,  dense  herbage.  Upon  this  favorable  soil  the  ancient  breed 
throve  without  special  care,  and  when  skillful  breeders,  emulating 
the  success  of  Mr.  Bakewell  with  the  Leicesters,  commenced  to 
improve  it,  they  speedily  raised  its  character.  At  first  the  Sussex 
or  Southdown  sheep  were  small,  and  with  few  good  points  ;  long 
and  thin  in*  the  neck,  narrow  in  the  forequarters,  high  in  the 
shoulders,  low  behind,  sharp  on  the  back,  and  with  flat  ribs ;  their 
only  good  points  being  a  good  leg.  Their  mutton,  however,  chief- 
ly from  the  excellent  character  of  their  pasture,  was  of  the  best 
flavor,  and  highly  valued.  By  the  careful  attention  of  Mr.  Ellman, 
of  Glynde,  the  defects  were  weeded  out,  and  after  50  years  of  con- 
stant selection  of  breeding  animals,  he  brought  his  sheep  into 
repute  and  favor,  as  the  first  of  the  short-wool  breeds.  Mr.  Jonas 
Webb,  of  Suffolk,  continued  the  course  of  improvement  from  1822, 


THE  SOUTHDOWN  SHEEP. 


115 


116  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

but  it  was  only  in  1840  that  he  gained  a  premium  for  his  stock  at 
an  exhibition.  After  this  he  took  a  prize  at  every  exhibition  of 
his  sheep,  and  in  1843  the  Highland  Society  paid  him  the  compli- 
ment of  having  portraits  of  his  prize  sheep  taken  for  the  museum 
at  Edinburgh.  In  1855  Webb's  Southdowns  were  exhibited  at  the 
Paris  exhibition,  and  a  ram,  for  which  $2,600  had  been  refused, 
was  presented  to  the  Emperor  Napoleon.  Since  Mr.  Webb's 
death,  many  breeders  have  made  a  wide  reputation  with  the 
Southdowns,  and  at  the  present  time  they  hold  the  position  of 
being  decidedly  the  best  mutton  sheep  in  the  world.  As  yearlings 
they  yield  75  to  80  Ibs.  in  dressed  weight,  of  the  choicest  meat  in 
the  market,  and  a  flock  of  high  character  will  produce  an  average 
of  6  Ibs.  to  the  fleece  of  a  wool  in  demand  for  flannels  and  soft 
goods.  The  ewes  are  prolific  breeders  and  excellent  mothers. 
These  sheep,  as  they  are  now  bred,  are  without  horns  and  with 
dark  brown  or  black  faces  and  legs.  The  size  is  medium ;  the 
body  round  and  deep  ;  the  forequarters  are  wide  and  deep,  and  the 
breast  is  broad.  The  back  is  broad  and  level ;  the  rump  square  and 
full,  and  the  thigh  full,  and  massive.  The  legs  are  short  with  fine 
bone.  The  form  is  smooth,  even,  fine,  and  symmetrical,  without 
coarseness  or  angularity  in  any  part.  The  habits  of  these  sheep 
are  active,  and  they  are  docile  and  contented.  They  are  able  to 
accommodate  themselves  to  any  district,  or  style  of  farming,  where 
moderately  good  pasturage  is  to  be  had,  and  are  well  suited  as 
gleaners  upon  an  arable  farm.  Mr.  Webb's  farm  was  mostly  all 
under  tillage.  For  the  improvement  of  our  native  sheep  in  a  par- 
ticular direction,  they  arc  not  to  be  surpassed,  and  in  this  respect 
they  rival  the  Cotswold.  Indeed,  there  is  scarcely  a  cross-bred 
race  of  sheep  in  England,  or  Europe,  but  has  been  indebted  to  the 
Southdown  for  some  of  its  smoothness,  rotundity,  hardiness  of 
constitution,  and  excellence  of  flesh.  It  is  an  excellent  feeder,  its 
lambs  are  active  and  hardy,  and  as  the  producer  of  market  lambs 
from  grade  or  pure  Merino  ewes,  the  Southdown  ram  has  no  su- 
perior, or  equal,  if  the  favor  with  which  the  dark  faces  and  legs 
of  the  lambs  are  received  by  butchers  is  considered  There  are  no 
fatter  lambs  come  to  market  than  those  of  a  cross  of  Southdown 
and  Merino.  The  Southdown  has  become  thoroughly  naturalized 
in  America,  and  its  dark  face  and  compact  fleece,  impervious  to 
the  heaviest  rains,  have  left  their  mark  upon  a  large  proportion  of 
our  natives,  ranking  in  this  respect  next  to  the  Merino. 

THE  HAMPSHIRE-DOWNS. — The  Hampshire- downs  have  of  late 
rapidly  risen  in  favor.  Previous  to  our  late  war,  many  of  them 
were  imported  into  the  southern  states  under  the  impression  that 


THE  HAMPSHIRE-DOWN  SHEEP. 


117 


118 

they  surpassed  their  rivals  and  progenitors,  the  South  downs,  in 
adaptation  to  the  climate.  Amidst  the  vicissitudes  of  a  state  of 
war,  no  stock  so  rapidly  suffers  and  disappears  as  sheep,  and  as 
Spain  lost  her  Merinos  in  the  French  war  of  last  century,  so  it  is 
probable  that  the  south  has  lost  her  Hampshire-downs.  It  is  a 
valuable  race  of  sheep,  occupying  a  place  where  a  larger  animal 
than  the  Southdown  is  required.  It  originated  in  a  cross  made 
about  70  years  ago  between  a  native,  white-faced,  horned  sheep  of 
the  district,  and  the  pure  Southdown.  The  prepotency,  or  natural 
vigor  and  force  of  the  Southdown  ram,  entirely  changed  the  char- 
acter of  the  breed  in  a  few  generations.  The  horns  disappeared, 
the  face  became  black,  the  frame  was  made  more  compact,  the 
back  broader  and  straighter,  the  barrel  rounder,  the  legs  shorter, 
and  the  quality  of  the  flesh  superior.  The  cross  retained  its 
ancient  hardiness,  its  Roman  nose,  and  massive  head,  and  large 
size.  It  became,  in  fact,  a  larger  Southdown,  maturing  at  an  early 
age,  and  faMing  rapidly.  The  large  size  of  the  lambs  of  this  breed 
make  it  specially  valuable  under  certain  circumstances  ;  at  a  year 
old  they  weigh  80  to  100  Ibs.  The  fleece  reaches  a  weight  of  6  to 
7  Ibs.  of  wool  suitable  for  combing,  being  longer  than  that  of  the 
Southdown,  and  not  so  fine.  The  mutton  of  the  Hampshire-downs 
is  not  overloaded  with  fat,  and  has  a  good  proportion  of  juicy,  well 
flavored,  lean  meat.  Tins  breed  is  occasionally  crossed  with  the 
Cotswold,  when  it  produces  a  wool  more  valuable  for  the  worsted 
manufactures  than  that  of  the  pure  Cotswold. 

THE  DORSET  SHEEP. — This  is  a  breed  which  Inhabits  a  district 
in  the  south  of  England,  where  it  has  been  preserved  intact  for  a 
long  period.  It  has  some  very  valuable  characteristics,  one  of  tho 
chief  of  which  is  its  fecundity,  and  its  ability  to  breed  at  an  early 
season.  The  Dorset  ewes  take  the  ram  in  April,  yean  in  Septem- 
ber, and  the  lambs  are  fit  for  market  at  Christmas.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  the  ewes  produce  and  raise  twins  or  triplets.  A  flock 
is  mentioned  owned  by  Mr  Pitfield,  of  Bridport,  Dorset,  Eng.,  con- 
sisting of  400  ewes,  which  raised  555  lambs  in  one  season.  The 
ewes  are  ready 'for  the  ram  immediately  after  yeaning,  and  may 
thus  produce  two  crops  of  lambs  in  a  year.  Where  market  lambs 
can  be  disposed  of,  this  peculiarity  may  be  turned  to  good  account, 
and  with  great  profit.  Both  rams  and  ewes  are  horned.  They 
have  white  legs ;  white,  broad,  and  long  faces,  with  a  tuft  of  wool 
on  the  forehead ;  black  nose  and  lips ;  low,  but  broad  shoulders ; 
straight  back  and  deep,  fuL  brisket ;  the  loins  are  broad  and  deep ; 
the  legs  are  rather  long,  but  light  in  the  bone.  A  related  and 
neighboring  breed  known  as  "  Pink-nosed  Somersets,"  have  pink 


THE  DORSET  SHEEP. 


119 


120 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


noses,  and  are  not  so  valuable.  The  Dorsets  are  hardy,  very  quiet 
and  docile,  and  submit  to  any  reasonable  management  with  facili- 
ty, adapting  themselves  readily  to  changes.  They  mature  early, 
weigh  100  Ibs.  dead  weight,  at  two  years  old,  when  folded  upon 
turnips  alone,  for  which  kind  of  feeding  they  are  well  suited.  The 
fleece  is  close  and  heavy,  yielding  6  Ibs.  of  white,  soft,  clean  wool 
adapted  to  combing  purposes.  The  lambs  are  sheared  for  their 
fleeces  of  "  lambs  wool."  When  crossed  with  the  Southdown,  the 
Dorset  ewes  produce  mostly  single  lambs,  which,  when  shorn,  yield 


Fig.  39.— DORSET  EWES  OF  MB.  PiTFiEi/o's  FLOCK.— (From  a  Photograph.) 

about  2  Ibs.  each  of  valuable  wool,  and  make,  when  mature,  a 
larger  and  better  feeding  sheep,  with  a  heavier  and  finer  fleece 
than  the  dams.  A  few  Dorsets  have  been  introduced  into  Vir- 
ginia, but  have  attracted  no  notice  beyond  the  simple  fact  of  their 
existence  there.  They  certainly  possess  some  valuable  points  for 
our  use  which  should  make  them  good  subjects  for  experiment. 

THE  CHEVIOT. — The  Cheviot  hills  traverse  the  boundary  be- 
tween England  and  Scotland.  These  hills  have  given  their  name  to 
a  very  hardy  breed  of  sheep,  the  origin  of  which  is  perhaps  some- 
what fancifully  dated  back  to  the  attempted  invasion  of  England 
by  the  Spanish  Armada.  When  this  formidable  and  dreaded  fleet 
was  wrecked  upon  the  stormy  British  coasts,  it  is  said  that  some 
of  the  sheep  with  which  the  ships  were  provided,  swam  ashore  and 
escaped  to  these  hills,  where  they  bred  and  multiplied.  They 
were  originally  small,  light-boned,  hardy  sheep,  and  were  spread 
over  most  of  the  hilly  part  of  the  Scottish  lowlands.  A  hundred 
years  ago  the  attention  of  breeders  was  drawn  to  the  Cheviots,  and 
they  were  greatly  improved  in  size  and  value.  It  is  said  that  a 


THE  CHEVIOT  SHEEP. 


6 


122  THE  SHEPHEBD'S  MAHUAL. 

Lincolnshire  cross  was  used  for  this  purpose,  and  that  a  Leicester 
cross  was  tried  and  failed.     It  is  now  a  most  useful  breed,  and 
when  fed  upon  sweet,  dry  herbage,  produces  a  very  choice  mutton, 
much  sought  after  by  the  epicure.    It  is  without  horns,  the  head 
and  legs  white,  but  sometimes,  though  rarely,  dun  or  speckled,  the 
face  good,  but  strong  featured  and  massive ;  the  eyes  lively ;  the 
body  long,  set  upon  clean,  fine  legs ;  the  hindquarter  and  saddle 
full  and  heavy ;  the  forequarter  light,  as  in  all  mountain  breeds, 
and  in  habit  they  are  quiet,  docile,  and  submissive  to  restraint.  As 
a  mountain  breed  they  stand  first  in  every  respect,  and  yet  are 
very  useful  lowland  sheep.     They  fatten  quickly  on  turnips,  after 
pasture,  without  grain,  and  make  a  dressed  weight  of  80  Ibs.  at  3 
years  old.    The  ewes  are  good  mothers,  and  the  lambs  are  very 
hardy,  spending  the  whole  season  on  the  hills  without  shelter,  ex- 
cept in  drifting  storms  of  snow,  when,  without  protection,  they 
would  be  in  danger  of  being  buried  in  the  drifts.    The  final  dispo- 
sition of  the  Cheviots,  when  full  grown,  is  to  be  sold  to  southern 
farmers,  who  raise  a  crop  of  cross-bred  lambs  by  a  Leicester  ram, 
and  fattening  the  ewes  when  the  lambs  are  weaned,  sell  both  to 
the  butchers,  turning  over  their  capital  with  interest  within  one 
year.    Upon  good  pasture  the  fleece  becomes  fine,  and  sells  for  a 
higher  price  than  when  they  are  fed  upon  coarse  grass.    The 
fleece  yields  about  5  Ibs.  of  medium  wool,  which  furnishes  the 
material  for  the  useful  and  fashionable  Scotch  tweeds  and  Cheviot 
cloths.     No  wool  is  in  greater  or  steadier  demand  than  this  class 
of  clothing  wool. 

THE  BLACK-FACED  SCOTCH  SHEEP. — This  breed  is  without 
doubt  the  oldest  hi  Scotland.  The  story  of  its  origin  is  obscured 
by  tradition.  It  is  known,  however,  to  have  existed,  much  as  it 
now  is,  for  several  centuries,  having  disputed  possession  of  the 
hills  whereon  Norval's  "  father  fed  his  flock,"  with  the  wolves  and 
foxes  of  the  semi-civilized  period,  which  preceded  the  last  political 
settlement  of  Scotland  with  England.  Since  the  union  of  the  two 
countries,  great  improvements  have  taken  place  in  Scotch  agri- 
culture, and  the  Black-faced  sheep  have  gained  with  it.  They  are 
a  horned  breed,  the  horns  of  the  ram  being  massive,  and  spirally 
curved.  The  face  is  black,  with  a  thick  muzzle  ;  the  eye  is  bright 
and  wild ;  the  body  square  and  compact,  with  good  quarters  and 
abroad  saddle.  They  are  very  muscular  and  active,  and  remarka- 
bly hardy,  able  to  endure  the  privations  incident  to  a  life  of  con- 
tinual exposure  upon  bleak  and  storm-beaten  mountains.  Only 
the  heaviest  snow-drifts,  followed  by  thawing,  freezing,  and  crust- 
ing of  the  snow,  overcome  them.  They  instinctively  herd  together 


THE  BLACK-F1CED  SCOTCH  SHEEP. 


323 


124:  THE  SHEPHEBD'S  MANUAL. 

in  storms,  and  although  completely  buried  in  a  snow-drift  will 
manage  to  push  the  snow  from  their  bodies  and  form  a  cave  over 
them,  in  which  they  will  live  upon  what  scanty  herbage  may  be 
within  their  reach,  until  help  comes.  Thus  buried,  these  sheep 
have  lived  for  two  or  three  weeks  before  they  have  been  found 
and  extricated  After  every  storm  the  shepherd's  first  duty  is  to 
explore  the  drifts  and  release  the  imprisoned  sheep  and  lambs. 
This  hardiness  fits  them  for  their  roving  life  upon  their  rocky 
heather-covered  pastures,  the  heather  in  part  furnishing  their  sub- 
sistence. They  dig  the  heather  from  beneath  the  snow,  or -feed 
upon  it  when  all  else  is  covered.  They  are  docile,  and  easily 
handled  with  the  help  of  the  sagacious  Colley  dogs,  and  are  gen- 
erally sufiiciently  able  to  help  themselves  in  emergencies.  Their 
activity  is  such  that  the  dog  is  sometimes  unable  to  head  off  a 
straying  flock,  or  even  to  get  abreast  of  it  when  instinctively 
bound  to  change  their  abode.  Three  days  before  a  storm  they  are 
on  the  alert,  and  seek  lower  ground  and  shelter.  At  lambing 
time,  the  ewes  find  retired  spots,  and  year  after  year  return  to 
the  same  locality  to  rear  their  lambs.  When  removed  from  their 
native  haunts,  they  have  been  known  to  journey  night  and  day  a 
distance  of  60  miles,  and  to  swim  a  large  river,  to  return  to  their 
old  pasture  grounds.  As  ah  instance  of  the  sagacity  and  activity 
of  the  sheep,  it  is  recorded  that  a  small  flock  which  were  thus  on 
the  way  to  a  former  pasture  ground,  were  obstructed  by  a  canal 
which  had  to  be  crossed.  As  they  could  not  easily  pass  this  ob- 
stacle, the  flock,  headed  by  an  old  wether,  traveled  along  the  bank 
until  they  overtook  a  canal  boat  which  was  passing  along  in  the 
center  of  the  canal.  The  cunning  wether  sprang  on  to  the  boat 
and  thence  to  the  opposite  bank,  the  whole  flock  following  in  In- 
dian file.  These  sheep  are  kept  in  large  flocks,  sometimes  of  sev- 
eral thousand,  and  frequently  of  one  to  four  thousand.  The 
lambs  will  survive  a  surprising  amount  of  cold  and  hunger,  and  are 
on  their  feet  almost  at  the  moment  of  birth.  The  ewes  take  the 
greatest  care  of  their  lambs,  and  will  remain  with  them  for  several 
days,  even  after  accidental  or  untimely  death. 

The  mutton  of  this  breed  is  of  peculiarly  fine  flavor,  and  the 
saddles  are  in  great  request.  The  carcass  weighs  about  65  Ibs.,  and 
the  fleece  averages  about  3  Ibs.  of  washed  wool.  The  breed  im- 
proves easily  under  the  care  of  a  judicious  breeder,  but  the  natural 
qualities  of  this  sheep  are  such  that  it  is  fitted  for  a  place  where 
no  others  would  profitably  thrire,  and  a  change  in  its  character 
that  would  cause  it  to  lose  this  quality  would  unfit  it  for  its  posi- 
tion, and  deprive  it  of  its  chief  value.  How  vast  the  room  in  our 


THE   WELSH  MOUNTAIN   SHEEP.  125 

exposed  mountain  localities,  or  on  our  unsheltered  northern  plains, 
for  such  a  sheep  as  this ;  a  race  hardy  and  self-dependent,  and 
that  would  produce  choice  mutton,  and  a  fleece  well  adapted  for 
rural  manufactures  of  coarse  cloths,  carpets,  blankets,  and  rugs. 

THE  WELSH  MOUNTAIN  SHEEP. — This  breed  is  said  to  be  one 
of  the  indigenous  races  of  Britain.  Formerly,  it  probably  roamed 
over  hill  and  lowland  of  the  whole  of  Wales  and  adjoining  parts 
of  England.  Of  late,  more  profitable  breeds  have  usurped  its 
place  in  the  cultivated  lowlands,  and  have  driven  it  into  the  re- 
motest pastures  or  stretches  of  barren  moor,  bearing  only  gorse 
and  heather,  upon  the  sides  and  summits  of  the  Welsh  mountains. 
Here  it  has  so  far  found  a  resting  place,  furnishing  those  very 
small,  but  highly  appreciated  legs  and  hind  quarters,  which  are 
valued  on  the  tables  of  wealthy  Englishmen  as  the  rarest  deli- 
cacies. These  legs  weigh  about  4  Ibs.,  and  the  whole  hind  quar- 
ters from?  to  10  Ibs.,  and  are  sold  at  the  confectioner's  and  fancy 
grocer's  shops,  at  two  or  three  times  the  price  of  ordinary  mutton. 
A  recollection  of  the  tender  sweetness  of  one  of  these  Welsh  legs 
is  apt  to  give  a  higher  appreciation  of  these  small  sheep  than 
might  be  profitable  for  a  farmer  to  entertain,  yet  it  is  a  question 
if  there  are  not  many  localities  amongst  our  mountain  ranges, 
where  flocks  of  these  small  hardy  sheep  could  be  kept  with  profit. 
As  might  be  expected,  these  sheep  are  hardy  and  good  nurses  to 
their  lambs,  rarely  producing  more  than  one,  except  when  crossed 
with  improved  breeds.  The  rams  are  horned,  but  ewes  rarely 
so ;  their  faces  are  white,  rusty  brown,  speckled,  or  gray.  The 
head  is  small  and  is  carried  high ;  the  neck  long ;  the  shoulders 
low ;  the  rump  high ;  the  chest  narrow ;  the  sides  flat ;  and  the 
girth  small.  The  average  fleece  yields  about  2  Ibs.  of  wool,  the 
best  of  which  furnishes  the  material  for  the  valued  Welth  flannel, 
which  never  shrinks  in  washing,  and  of  which  sheets  and  blankets 
are  made  that  last  a  lifetime.  The  Welsh  wool  is  all  home-spun, 
and  is  woven  at  home  into  all  sorts  of  clothing  and  domestic 
goods ;  the  farmers  and  their  families  being  wholly  clothed  in 
woolen.  The  cloths  are  home  dyed,  either  black,  blue,  or  red. 
The  red  cloth  furnishes  the  material  for  the  women's  cloaks,  which 
are  universally  worn,  and  which  when  a  French  army  landed  on 
the  Welsh  coast,  in  1797,  were  mistaken  by  them  for  the  red  coats 
of  British  soldiers,  and  ltd  to  their  immediate  and  unconditional 
surrender  before  the  mistake  was  discovered.  This  race  of  sheep, 
comparatively  so  puny,  is  a  source  of  much  comfort  and  wealth  to 
the  Welsh  people,  and  attempts  to  supplant  it  by  the  Cheviot  and 
Black-faced  sheep,  have  so  far  failed.  No  other  sheep  can  com- 


126 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


THE  SPANISH  MEBINO  SHEEP.  127 

pete  with  them  on  their  native  mountain  tops,  and  none  are  more 
profitable  on  the  lowland  pastures,  than  a  cross  upon  them  of 
small  pure-bred  Southdowns,  Cotswolds,  or  Leicesters.  The  flocks 
usually  kept  number  from  50  to  500  head. 

THE  SPANISH,  FRENCH,  AND  GERMAN  MERINOS. — The  Merinos 
of  Spain,  France,  and  Germany,  although  they  now  possess  differ- 
ent characters  and  habits,  have  the  same  origin.  The  French, 
Saxon,  and  Silesian  flocks,  were  all  originally  from  Spain.  The 
Spanish  Merino  existed  as  a  distinct  race  2,000  years  ago,  and  the 
fine  robes  of  the  Roman  Emperors  were  made  from  the  wool  of 
the  Spanish  flocks.  There  is  no  history  or  tradition  as  to  their 
origin  which  can  be  accepted  as  reasonable  by  any  practical 
shepherd.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  fine  wooled 
sheep,  which  we  read  of  in  the  ancient  histories,  were  rather 
the  natural  product  of  very  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and 
climate  by  which  inferior  races  were  greatly  improved,  than  of 
any  direct  efforts  to  breed  them  up  to  a  desired  standard.  Yet 
luxurious  Romans  may  undoubtedly  have  created  a  demand  for 
fine  wools,  which  Spanish  shepherds  knew  how  to  produce  by 
coupling  suitable  animals,  for  the  art  of  breeding  was  well  under- 
stood in  those  ancient  days,  and  many  of  the  maxims  of  modern 
breeders  are  simply  reproductions  of  those  in  vogue  as  long  ago  as 
the  early  Christian  era.  The  finest  sheep  of  Spain,  when  they 
first  attracted  notice,  were  found  widely  scattered  over  that  coun- 
try, divided  into  varieties  occupying  distinct  provinces,  and  those 
varieties,  again,  were  subdivided  into  large  flocks,  owned  by 
wealthy  proprietors,  each  of  which  flocks  possessed  such  marked 
characters  as  would  entitle  it  to  be  considered  as  a  distinct  family 
or  sub-variety.  The  system  of  culture  by  which  these  various 
families  became  possessed  of  their  special  characteristics,  are  well 
described  in  an  essay  by  Dr.  R.  R.  Livingston,  which  was  pre- 
sented to  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Useful  Arts,  of  New 
York,  in  the  year  1809.  It  is  unnecessary  here  to  do  more  than  to 
refer  to  this  work.  It  is  sufficient  to  record  the  fact  that,  at  a 
very  early  period  of  modern  history,  Spain  possessed  the  only 
valuable  flock  of  fine  wool  sheep  in  the  world,  and  that  all  other 
naturalized  races  of  Merino,  our  own  included,  have  been  derived 
from  that  country.  It  may  be  added,  that  to  a  great  extent,  if  not 
altogether,  Spain  has  lost  her  pre-eminence,  and  breeders  do  not 
now  resort  thither  for  fresh  importations.  The  Spanish  sheep  are 
estimated  to  number  ten  millions,  in  which  are  included  Merinos 
of  the  two  now  remaining  families,  the  Infantado  or  Negretti,  and 
the  Escurial,  and  various  other  fine  and  coarse  wool  sheep.  The 


128  THE  SHEPHEKD'S  MANUAL. 

Negretti  sheep  are  of  more  interest  to  us  than  any  other  of  the 
Spanish  sheep,  as  it  is  of  this  breed  alone  that  any  are  now 
brought  to  this  country.  The  Escurial  sheep  are  of  little  value  to 
us,  either  for  breeding  or  crossing  with  our  own.  They  are  rep- 
resented here  by  the  Saxon  and  Silesian  Merino,  which  have  de- 
scended from  them,  as  will  be  hereafter  explained.  The  Merino 
cannot  thrive  in  a  moist  climate.  A  wide  range  of  dry,  upland 
pasture  is  necessary  for  them,  and  they  do  not  require  a  very  nutri- 
tious herbage.  Wet  pastures  are  very  unhealthful  for  theia,  and 
the  liver  rot  and  diseases  of  the  lungs  carry  them  off  from  a  large 
flock  by  thousands,  in  unfavorable  seasons.  On  this  account,  the 
Merino  has  not  thriven  in  England,  and  it  now  exists  and  thrives 
in  those  countries  only  where  the  climate  is  dry  and  warm,  or 
even  hot. 

THE  FRENCH  MEBINO.— As  this  variety  has  been  imported  to 
some  extent  into  the  United  States,  and  possesses  some  value  for 
crossing  upon  our  native  Merinos,  or  other  sheep,  it  is  important 
to  notice  its  character  and  peculiarities.  It  originated  from  an 
importation  of  a  flock  of  over  300  Spanish  sheep,  selected  from 
the  finest  flocks  of  Spain  in  1786.  This  flock  was  placed  upon  a 
public  farm,  for  the  improvement  of  stock,  at  Rambouillet,  near 
Paris.  In  the  selection  from  various  sources,  it  appears  that  the 
flock  was  of  a  mixed  character,  but  by  careful  breeding,  through 
a  course  of  years,  the  differences  became  merged  into  a  breed  of 
sheep,  which  surpassed  its  ancestors,  in  the  opinion  of  its  French 
owners.  It  was  in  increased  size  of  carcass  and  weight  of  fleece, 
that  the  improvement  was  chiefly,  if  not  wholly,  made.  In  1825 
they  became  the  largest  pure  Merinos  in  existence,  with  remark- 
ably loose  skin,  and  immense  neck-folds.  In  1842  there  were 
flocks  of  these  sheep  in  France,  whose  fleeces  weighed  14  Ibs.  for 
ewes,  and  20  to  24  Ibs.  for  rams.  At  this  time  a  flock  was  imported 
into  this  country  by  Mr.  D.  C.  Collins,  of  Hartford,  Ct.  The  wool 
of  these  sheep  was  considered  by  a  competent  judge  as  equal  to 
the  best  Spanish  Merino  wool.  It  was  of  a  brilliant,  creamy  color, 
on  a  rich,  soft,  pink  skin,  which  was  loose  and  wrinkled.  Their 
form  was  fine,  their  constitution  excellent,  and  in  size  they  were 
much  larger  than  the  American  Uerino.  In  1846,  Mr.  Taintor, 
also  of  Hartford,  commenced  to  import  these  sheep.  His  rams 
sheared  from  18  to  24  Ibs.  of  unwashed  wool,  and  ewes  from  15  to 
20  Ibs.  The  ewes  weighed  alive  from  130  to  200  pounds,  and  the 
rams  from  180  to  300  pounds.  There  was  much  less  yolk  or  gum 
in  the  fleeces  than  in  those  of  the  Spanish  sheep,  and  there  was 
consequently  less  loss  in  washing  the  wool. 


THE  FRENCH  MERINO  SHEEP. 


129 


The  French  Merino  soon  spread  through  the  northern  states, 
but  many  breeders  became  dissatisfied  with  their  tenderness, 
as  compared  with  the  Spanish  breeds,  and  they  rapidly  fell  into 
disfavor.  They  were  not  fitted  for  our  rough  farming,  and  re- 
quired more  care  than  American  farmers  are  inclined  to  give  to 
their  stock.  The  best  of  these  animals  were  found,  with  proper 
care,  to  be  profitable,  but  the  inferior  ones  were  entirely  worth- 
less. Under  such  circumstances  it  is  not  surprising  that  they 
should  fall  out  of  the  race  in  competition  with  naturalized  Spanish 
Merinos,  which,  even  when  inferior,  were  still  valuable,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  good  qualities  they  retained.  In  France  the  Merinos 


Fig.  43. — FRENCH   MEEINO. 

have  favorably  competed  with  the  English  breeds  as  mutton  sheep, 
and  it  is  only  recently  that  the  French  agricultural  journals 
are  beginning  to  compare  the  profits  from  the  Southdowns  with 
those  from  the  Merinos. 

At  the  Vienna  International  Exhibition  in  1873,  the  French 
Merinos  were  largely  represented,  and  were  very  favorably 
noticed.  The  specimens  there  exhibited  were  large  and  well 
formed,  the  skin  was  free  from  large  folds  or  wrinkles,  and  the 
wool  was  long,  fine,  strong,  and  thickly  set  on  the  skin.  The  best 
of  them,  however,  came  from  Germany.  The  ram,  whose  portrait 
is  here  given,  was  exhibited  by  Herr  Kannenberg,  of  Gerbin,  near 


130  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

Kosternitz,  in  Pomerania.  Its  wool  was  3  inches  in  length,  very 
thick  upon  the  skin,  very  equal  in  quality,  of  fair  strength,  and 
covered  the  legs  and  ears.  The  sire  of  this  ram  clipped  27  Ibs.  of 
unwashed  wool,  which,  when  washed  in  hot  water,  yielded  17  Ibs. 
of  clean  wool.  Ferdinand  Schwartz,  of  Lappenhagen,  exhibited 
a  French,  (Rambouillet),  Merino  ram,  whose  fleece  weighed,  un- 
washed, 31£  Ibs.,  equal  to  15£  Ibs.  of  washed  wool.  This  animal 
had  three  neck-folds,  but  no  "rose"  or  rump  fold.  His  wool  was 
2f  inches  long,  and  thickly  set  upon  the  skin. 

Prince  Schaumberg-Lippe,  of  Post  Stalitz,  Bohemia,  exhibited 
some  combing  or  delaine  wool  Merinos,  of  French  blood,  whose 
fleeces  were  of  the  extraordinary  length  of  5  to  7  inches.  The 
yield  of  the  whole  flock,  of  more  than  800,  is  said  to  average  14£ 
Ibs.  per  head  of  unwashed  wool,  which  shrank  in  scouring  in  the 
factory,  58  per  cent.  It  is  impossible  •  to  consider  the  excellent 
points  and  intrinsic  merits  of  the  well  bred  French  Merino,  and  its 
poor  success,  so  far,  in  this  country,  without  being  forcibly  remind- 
ed of  the  lack  of  wisdom  of  a  course  frequently  and  periodically 
pursued  by  American  breeders  and  farmers,  and  nowhere  more 
strikingly  shown  than  in  the  past  experience  of  our  sheep  husbandry 
with  its  sudden  and  excessive  vicissitudes.  The  '  *  ups  and  downs  " 
of  this  industry,  every  few  years,  is  one  of  the  strangest  manifesta- 
tions of  unsteadiness  ever  recorded  in  any  pursuit  It  is  unfortu- 
nate for  us  that  we  can  hardly  restrain  ourselves  from  over  san- 
guine expectations  on  the  one  hand,  or  on  the  other  hand,  when 
results  do  not  meet  our  anticipations,  from  the  utmost  depression. 
Being  too  ready  to  form  opinions,  and  to  act  in  obedience  rather 
to  our  sudden  impressions  than  to  our  mature  judgments,  we  enter 
into  new  enterprises  without  consideration,  and  abandon  them  in 
a  panic.  Thus  a  thing  excellent  in  itself,  and  of  inherent  value 
to  us,  is  extolled  to  the  skies  without  justice  at  the  outset,  and 
then  with  equal  want  of  justice,  is  condemned  and  sacrificed  as 
utterly  valueless,  because  it  has  failed  to  turn  all  it  touched  into 
gold.  This  is  the  history  of  all  our  agricultural  manias.  And  the 
French  Merino  has  been  made  the  subject  of  just  such  exalted  ex- 
pectations, and  of  just  such  deep  denunciations.  Yet  there  is  a 
place  for  this  breed  in  our  agriculture  which  it  will  hold  and  keep 
at  some  period  in  the  future  in  spite  of  past  adverse  experiences. 

THE  SAXON  MEBINO.— In  1765  the  King  of  Spain,  on  the  appli- 
cation of  his  brother-in-law,  Prince  Xavier,  sent  300  Merinos  of 
the  Escurial  family  into  Saxony.  These  sheep,  naturally  the  finest 
wooled  and  the  least  hardy  of  the  Spanish  flocks,  were  so  bred  as 
to  still  further  increase  the  fineness  of  the  fleece,  and  to  diminish 


THE  SAXON  MERINO.  131 

their  strength  of  constitution.  The  ewes  yielded  from  a  pound 
and  a  half  to  two  pounds  of  washed  wool,  and  the  rams  from  two 
to  three  pounds.  The  wool  was  almost  free  from  yolk,  and  re- 
mained clean  and  white  ;  the  staple  was  from  one  Inch  to  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  length.  The  body  of  this  sheep  was  thin,  the  legs 
long,  the  neck  long  and  thin,  the  skin  pale,  and  the  constitution 
weak.  Yet  the  beauty  and  extreme  fineness  of  the  wool  were 
such  (a  fiber,  not  of  the  finest,  measuring  1/6to  of  an  inch  in  dia- 
meter) that  it  overbore  the  objections  to  the  defects  of  the  sheep. 
While  this  is  the  general  character  of  the  Saxon  sheep,  there  are 
a  few  breeders  who  have  striven  with  success  to  give  them  more 
size  and  greater  compactness  of  form. 

The  management  of  the  noted  Saxon  flock  of  Baron  Sternberg, 
from  which  most  of  our  recent  importations  of  these  sheep  have 
been  made,  is  worthy  of  note  here.  This  flock  consists  of  1,200 
head :  600  ewes,  100  rams.  260  lambs,  and  the  rest  wethers  and 
yearlings.  They  are  kept  in  one  large  brick  stable,  330  feet  long, 
63  feet  wide,  and  30  feet  high ;  this  is  well  ventilated,  and  made 
to  be  closed  in  severe  weather.  The  ewes,  rams,  etc.,  are  kept  in 
divisions  separated  by  hurdles,  supported  by  stakes  driven  into 
the  floor.  In  these  are  placed  fodder-racks  and  feed  troughs. 
Above  the  stable  are  hay  and  straw  lofts,  floored  with  boards, 
which  are  covered  with  several  inches  of  beaten  clay.  The  litter 
and  manure  remain  in  the  stable  six  months  at  a  time,  until  it  is 
in  a  compact,  solid  mass,  three  or  four  feet  thick.  The  sheep  are 
stabled  here  from  November  to  April,  and  foddered  on  straw,  hay, 
turnips,  and  brewers'  grams.  In  summer  they  are  taken  out  to 
graze  from  9  to  12  in  the  forenoon,  and  from  3  in  the  afternoon 
until  sunset.  Great  care  is  taken  in  coupling  the  ewes ;  those 
rams  being  selected  that  are  needed  to  cover  defects  or  improve 
weak  points  in  the  ewes.  Mere  fineness  of  wool  is  not  aimed  at. 
The  greatest  possible  size  of  carcass  compatible  with  tine  clothing 
wool,  and  a  fleece  at  least  2J  Ibs.  in  weight,  are  the  desired  objects. 
The  weak  and  inferior  Iambs  are  killed  off  when  young,  and  the 
flock  is  rigorously  weeded  of  all  but  healthy  animals.  The  value 
of  the  land  upon  which  this  flock  is  kept  with  profit  is  $200  to 
$300  an  acre.  The  importation  of  Saxon  Merinos  into  the  United 
States  have  shown  that  this  breed  cannot,  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, profitably  compete  with  other  varieties  of  Merinos,  on  ac- 
count of  the  cost  of  the  shelter  and  extra  care  needed  for  its 
proper  management,  and  the  smallness  of  the  fleece.  The  supe- 
rior fineness  of  the  wool  does  not  bring  a  sufficiently  high  price  to 
make  up  for  the  deficiency  in  weight.  In  competition  with  the 


132  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

American  or  French  Merino,  the  Saxon  has  been  found  unprofita- 
ble for  the  production  of  wool  in  the  present  condition  of  the 
•woolen  manufacture,  yet  there  may  occur  cases  in  which  it  can  be 
made  useful  at  some  future  time,  when  the  demand  for  very  fine 
wool  may  return  under  the  influence  of  the  changes  of  fashion. 

THE  SILESIAN  MERINO. — The  Silesian  Merinos  have  become 
already  a  successfully  acclimated  breed  in  the  United  States.  This 
breed  became  established  through  importations  from  Saxony  as 
well  as  from  Spain.  The  flock  out  of  which  the  only  importa- 
tion into  America  was  made,  became  naturalized  in  Silesia  by  an 
importation  of  Infantado  and  Negretti  Merinos,  in  1811,  by 
Ferdinand  Fischer,  of  Wirchenblatt.  Mr.  Fischer  personally  se- 
lected 100  Infantado  ewes  and  4  Negretti  rams,  and  these  sheep 
have  been  interbred  without  admixture  from  that  date  to  the 
present.  So  careful  has  been  the  breeding,  that  since  its  com- 
mencement over  60  years  ago,  the  pedigree  of  every  sheep  of  the 
flock  has  been  recorded.  This  purity  of  blood  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  characteristics  of  the  flock  in  question,  in  which,  having 
acquired  an  offshoot  from  it,  we  are  especially  interested.  Perfect 
purity  of  blood  gives  force,  or,  to  use  the  breeders'  phraseology, 
prepotency  to  the  breed  used  in  crossing  on  other  races,  and  in- 
sures uniformity  of  improvement.  If  this  general  opinion  of 
breeders  is  founded  on  fact,  as  must  be  admitted,  then  the  value 
of  the  flock  to  be  referred  to,  can  hardly  be  questioned,  and  it 
might  truly  be  designated  as  pure  Spanish,  instead  of,  by  reason 
of  its  accidental  location,  Silesian.  As  it  is,  however,  generally 
known  as  Silesian,  and  is  as  well  entitled  to  that  name  as  are  the 
French  Merinos  to  theirs,  it  is  convenient  to  continue  its  use.  The 
American  Silesian  Merinos  were  imported  from  the  flock  of  Mr. 
Fischer,  by  the  late  Mr.  Win.  Chamberlin,  of  Dutchess  Co.,  N.  Y., 
from  1851  to  1856.  In  all,  212  ewes  and  34  rams  were  imported. 
The  ewes  shear  from  8  to  11  pounds  of  unwashed  wool,  the  rams 
from  12  to  16  pounds.  The  wool  is  from  two  inches  and  a  half  to 
three  inches  long,  dark  on  the  outside,  without  gum,  but  with 
plenty  of  oil  of  a  white  and  free,  but  not  sticky,  character.  The 
ewes  weigh,  alive,  from  110  to  130  Ibs.,  and  rams  from  145  to  155 
Ibs.  They  are  hardy,  good  breeders,  and  the  ewes  are  good  nurses. 
After  some  years'  experience  with  them,  Mr.  Chamberlin  has 
stated  that  they  do  not  deteriorate,  but  that  the  wool  grows  finer, 
without  losing  in  the  weight  of  the  fleece.  They  mature  slowly, 
and  do  not  reach  their  full  size  until  four  years  old ;  after  eight  or 
nine  years  they  become  lighter  in  weight.  The  mature  sheep  are 
as  large  as  the  ordinary  American  Merino.  The  Silesian  is  simply 


CKOSS-BRED   SHEEP.  133 

a  very  high-bred  Spanish  sheep,  resulting  from  the  union  of  two 
of  the  best  families,  and  bred  for  more  than  half  a  century  for  a 
particular  purpose  by  one  breeder,  or  what  is  really  equivalent  to 
that,  a  father  and  son.  The  fleece  is  superior  hi  fineness  to  that  of 
any  other  Merino  we  possess,  and  for  a  really  fine  wool,  is  un- 
rivalled. It  is  fortunate  that  the  Silesian  Merino  begins  its  career 
in  America  under  such  favorable  auspices,  and  that  the  shepherd 
in  charge  of  the  flock,  Mr.  Carl  Heyne,  so  thoroughly  under- 
^stands  its  requirements  and  management.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
the  conservative  and  judicious  management  of  this  flock  will  help 
to  establish  it  successfully,  and  to  launch  it  on  a  long  course  of  use- 
fulness. Rams  and  ewes  of  this  flock  are  already  being  distributed 
by  sale  throughout  the  country,  and  the  original  flock  now  numbers 
over  800  head.  One  peculiarity  in  Mr.  Heyne's  management, 
is  especially  noteworthy ;  the  lambs  are  yeaned  very  early  in  the 
winter.  This  is  of  course  a  matter  of  choice  on  the  part  of  the 
shepherd,  but  it  involves  the  greatest  excellence  of  management, 
and  the  provision  of  roots  for  the  maintenance  of  the  nursing 
ewes,  along  with  a  perfect  arrangement  for  shelter  and  warmth 
during  the  winter  season.  It  is  obvious  that  few  American  breed- 
ers, and  still  fewer  farmers,  would  find  it  possible  or  profitable  to 
incur  the  necessary  expense  of  this  sort  of  management  for  the 
amount  of  profit  realized  from  the  wool  alone. 

CKOSS-BRED  SHEEP. — It  is  a  somewhat  suggestive  fact  that  just 
now  the  most  profitable  sheep  in  Europe  are  cross-bred.  The 
cross-bred  races  in  England  are  what  the  English  farmers  perti- 
nently designate  the  ' '  rent-paying  sheep, "  that  is,  that  there  is  more 
money  in  them  than  in  any  others.  The  cross  is  made  between 
the  strictly  mutton  sheep  and  the  strictly  wool-bearing  sheep. 
The  sheep  raised  chiefly  for  wool  are  of  slow  growth  and  late  in 
maturing.  The  high-bred  mutton  sheep  are  high  feeders,  and  re- 
quire the  most  careful  treatment.  They  have  been  refined  so 
highly  that  they  no  longer  possess  the  requisite  constitution,  nor 
are  they  so  prolific  as  to  satisfy  the  wants  of  farmers  who  depend, 
not  upon  the  high  prices  obtained  by  breeders  for  their  stock,  but 
upon  those  offered  by  the  purchasers  of  meat  and  wool,  who  can 
only  give  what  the  inexorable  necessities  of  the  markets  enable 
them  to  pay.  The  cross-bred  sheep  are  of  quick  growth  and  early 
maturity  ;  their  mutton  is  acceptable  hi  the  markets  ;  their  fleeces 
are  of  wide  adaptation  to  woolen  manufactures,  and  they  are 
easily  fed  and  make  a  greater  weight  of  marketable  meat  with  a 
comparatively  small  consumption  of  food.  In  Mr.  Lawes'  experi- 
ments, related  in  the  Royal  Agricultural  Journal,  it  was  found  that 


134  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL 

the  cross-bred  sheep  could  be  fed  more  cheaply,  for  the  same 
weight  of  flesh,  than  the  pure  breeds,  with  but  one  exception, 
that  being  the  Cotswold.  The  same  necessity  to  make  the  most 
profit  on  the  least  expenditure,  exists  with  American  as  with  the 
English,  French,  and  German  farmers,  and  we  are  discovering,  as 
they  have  done,  that  the  cross-bred  sheep  bring  the  most  money 
to  their  owners.  In  England,  through  the  operation  of  this  fact, 
there  has  been  established  for  some  years  past  a  system  of  ram 
sales,  at  which  breeders  of  pure  blood  sheep  offer  their  surplus 
rams  for  sale  or  for  hire  by  the  year.  By  this  means  farmers  are 
enabled  to  select  for  themselves  such  breeding  animals  as  they 
may  need.  These  sales  are  attended  by  purchasers  from  all  parts 
of  Europe,  Australia,  and  South  America,  and  also  by  a  few  of  the 
more  enterprising  breeders  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  or 
their  agents.  At  the  Vienna  Exposition  of  1873,  where  there  were 
exhibited  several  cross-breeds  of  sheep  which  were  highly  satisfac- 
tory, the  favorable  results  of  this  system  were  prominently  set 
forth.  The  most  conspicuous  of  these  was 

THE  COTSWOLD-MERINO. — These  are  fine  examples  of  sheep. 
They  are  without  horns,  with  bare  faces  resembling  the  Cotswolds, 
but  with  the  pink  noses  of  the  Merino;  the  ears  are  slightly 
drooping,  and  the  top-knot  shorter  and  less  abundant  than  in  the 
Cotswold.  The  wool  is  much  finer  than  in  the  Cotswold,  very 
bright,  with  good  curl,  thickly  set  on  the  skin,  and  well  filled 
with  liquid  yellow  oil,  but  free  from  solid  yolk  or  gum.  The 
fleece  is  better  closed  than  that  of  the  Cotswold,  and  is  easily  kept 
free  from  dirt  and  dust.  The  flesh  is  firmer  than  that  of  the  Cots- 
wold, and  thicker  than  in  the  Merino,  both  back  and  ribs  being 
well  covered.  The  girth  taken  over  the  wool  averages  5  feet  8 
inches.  The  wool  is  scant  below  the  knee  and  hock.  This  is  the 
character  of  the  first  cross.  When  interbred  without  further 
crossing,  this  character  has  been  well  maintained.  The  cross-bred 
animals  and  their  produce  are  of  strong  constitution,  mature 
quickly,  becoming  prime  fat  at  12  to  14  months  old,  and  weigh 
alive  at  that  age  140  to  148  pounds.  The  flock  from  which  some 
of  the  specimens  exhibited  at  Vienna  were  taken,  numbered  340 
head,  and  was  bred  by  the  Moravian  Sugar  Factory  Company,  of 
Keltschan,  Austria.  The  sheep  are  fed  upon  waste  beet  pulp  from 
the  factory,  a  small  quantity  of  oats,  hay,  and  oil-cake,  in  addition 
to  clover  pasture  and  mangels,  which  completes  the  round  of  the 
year's  feeding.  The  mutton  is  held  in  high  esteem,  and  brings 
the  extreme  price  of  8  cents  per  pound,  live  weight,  after  the 
fleece  is  sheared. 


THE  MERINO  CROSSES.    ,  135 

There  are  many  other  flocks  similarly  bred  in  Austria  and  Hun- 
gary, and  all  are  reported  as  being  equally  satisfactory.  In  refer- 
ence to  these  sheep,  a  German  agricultural  journal  published  in 
Vienna,  in  its  issue  of  June  2,  1873,  remarks  as  follows :  "  We" 
cannot  sympathize  with  the  complaints  of  the  admirers  of  high, 
fine  wool,  looking  as  we  do  upon  the  farmer  as  a  merchant  who 
must  keep  up  with  the  times,  and  supply  the  wants  of  the  market. 
As  the  public  have  ceased  to  ask  for  the  very  fine  cloth  which  was 
so  highly  valued  50  years  ago  for  its  beauty  and  durability,  no  one 
can  complain  that  the  manufacturer  turns  his  attention  to  cloths 
of  coarser  quality,  suitable  to  the  present  public  taste.  When  the 
manufacturer  no  longer  requires  so  much  of  the  high,  fine  wool, 
the  price  falls,  and  the  farmer  ceases  to  produce  an  article  that  is 
no  longer  profitable."  There  could  certainly  be  nothing  more 
pertinent  to  our  own  case  than  this.  The  same  need  has  found  its 
same  remedy  here,  and  the  Cotswold-Merino  is  largely  bred  for 
the  production  of  market  lambs,  and  some  of  our  best  breeders  are 
giving  their  attention  to  the  establishment  of  permanent  flocks  of 
this  cross,  with  promising  results. 

THE  SOUTHDOWN-MERINO. — This  cross  has  been  tried  with 
success  ia  Germany  upon  a  middle  quality  of  land,  not  sufficiently 
productive  to  support  the  heavier  bodied  Cotswold-Merinos.  The 
first  cross-bred  sheep  possess  good  feeding  qualities,  and  when  bred 
together  without  further  crossing,  keep  well  up  to  the  standard  of 
the  parents.  The  Arch  Duke  Albrecht  has  a  flock  of  1,400  of  this 
cross,  of  which  some  specimens  were  exhibited  at  Vienna.  The 
wool  is  rated  as  middle  fine,  weighing  3£  Ibs.  to  the  fleece  in  the 
shearlings,  and  3  Ibs.  in  the  two  shearlings.  This  cross  made 
upon  grade  Merinos,  is  very  common  in  the  United  States,  where 
early  market  lambs  are  produced,  there  being  no  fatter,  better,  or 
more  desirable  lambs  to  the  butcher,  although  there  are  heavier, 
than  those  from  this  cross.  As  in  the  Cotswold-Merinos,  the  first 
cross  is  the  best  for  interbreeding. 

THE  LEICESTER-MERINO. — This  cross  is  a  somewhat  unusual 
one,  and  does  not  appear  to  have  been  made  with  a  view  to  the 
permanent  establishment  of  a  new  race  of  sheep,  except  in  rare 
instances  where  the  possession  of  a  suitable  breed  of  Merinos  and 
the  taste  of  the  proprietor  have  been  coincident.  In  one  case  only 
has  the  effort  to  establish  this  cross  been  reported  in  any  publica- 
tion of  wide  circulation.  The  history  of  a  flock  of  about  500  Lei- 
cester-Merinos, bred  by  M.  E.  "Pluchet,  of  Trappes,  France,  given 
to  the  Central  Agricultural  Society,  of  France,  in  January,  1875,  is 


136 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  HAKUAL. 


THE  COTSWOLD   CROSSES.  137 

published  by  Eugene  Gayot,  the  well  known  writer  upon  live 
stock,  in  the  Journal  d>  Agriculture  Pratique,  of  the  27th  of  May 
following,  with  a  portrait  of  one  of  these  sheep  which  is  reproduced 
here.  The  course  followed  by  Mons.  Pluchet  during  the  36  years 
of  his  persevering  effort  is  very  suggestive  and  instructive.  He 
commenced  in  1839  by  coupling  his  Rambouillet  Merino  ewes, 
weighing  about  68  pounds  when  dressed  for  the  butcher  at  3  years 
old,  with  a  pure  Leicester  ram  of  moderate  size.  The  effort  to 
produce  what  he  wanted,  by  one  cross  only,  failed.  At  first  the 
lambs  were  too  small,  and  the  fleece  was  too  light.  Greater  suc- 
cess was  made  by  crossing  the  half-blood  ewes  with  rams  of 
quarter  Leicester  blood.  The  produce,  containing  three-eighths 
Leicester,  and  and  five-eighths  Merino  blood,  were  much  improved, 
giving  a  much  longer  and  better  fleece  than  the  half  or  quarter, 
bloods.  After  continuing  a  course  of  breeding  the  produce  of 
this  cross  together,  up  to  1856,  a  new  type  of  animal,  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  its  ancestors,  resulted.  The  carcass  was  much  larger 
than  in  the  Merino,  the  wool  was  not  so  long  as  that  of  the  Lei- 
cester, but  finer  and  softer ;  the  face  was  free  from  wool,  and  the 
head  was  square,  with  large,  prominent  eyes.  The  bone  was 
remarkably  fine  ;  the  flesh  solid,  and  the  ewes  were  prolific  and 
remarkably  good  nurses;  but  neither  the  carcass  nor  the  fleece 
were  sufiiciently  heavy  to  be  profitable.  The  ewes  of  this  cross 
were  coupled  with  a  pure  Leicester  ram,  and  the  produce  being 
eleven-sixteenths  Leicester,  were  again  crossed  with  rams  of  three- 
eighths  Leicester,  or  of  the  previous  cross.  The  sheep  thus  pro- 
cured were  8|- sixteenths  Leicester  and  7|-sixteenths  Merino,  or 
nearly  half  bloods.  The  close  in-and-in-breeding  of  1his  cross 
gave  a  race,  of  sheep  that,  when  fed  on  the  same  pastures  as  the 
original  Merinos,  produced  exactly  the  same  dead  weight  of  meat 
of  superior  quality  at  24  months,  that  the  Merinos  gave  at  36 
months,  and  a  fleece  weighing  9£  Ibs.  in  the  yolk,  which  sold  at  a 
higher  price  per  pound  than  the  Merino  fleece.  Under  the  cir- 
cumstances in  which  Mons.  Plachet  was  placed,  the  result  was 
very  profitable,  and  the  new  race  he  originated  occupies  a  place 
which  neither  of  the  original  parents  was  able  to  fill.  Under  a 
system  of  close  breeding,  without  fresh  admixture,  the  quality  and 
character  of  this  flock  are  maintained,  and  the  ewes  continue  to 
be  both  prolific  of  lambs  and  milk,  and  are  excellent  nurses, 

COTSWOLD-LEICESTER. — A  very  handsome  cross-bred  is  pro- 
duced by  the  union  of  the  Cotswold  ram  with  the  Leicester  ewe. 
The  fleece  of  this  cross  is  of  a  silky  fiber,  beautifully  waved  and 
curled.  The  wool  partakes  of  the  fineness  and  luster  of  the  Lei- 


-  —  _ 


140  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

\ 

It  was  found  to  maintain  its  original  character  perfectly,  produc- 
ing a  sheep  which  yielded  a  fleece  of  wool  closer  and  finer  than 
that  of  the  Cotswold,  but  not  so  long,  weighing  from  11  to  13  Ibs., 
and  a  much  heavier  carcass  of  mutton  of  a  quality  equal  to  that  of 
the  Southdown  which  weighed,  at  three  years  old,  150  Ibs.  The 
ewes  are  prolific,  the  lambs  strong,  healthy,  and  maturing  quickly, 
reaching  a  live  weight  of  140  to  160  Ibs.  at  twelve  mouths.  They 
are  found  to  be  equally  suitable  to  the  light  pastures  of  Long 
Island,  with  either  the  pure  Southdown  or  the  pure  Cotswold,  and 
are  perfectly  at  home  beneath  the  hot  summer  suns  of  our  climate. 
It  is  a  coincidence  which  is  not  at  all  remarkable,  being  founded 
on  common  necessities,  that  in  producing  this  and  other  crosses, 
the  Germans  and  ourselves  have  taken  up  the  same  materials  to 
work  with.  The  climates  of  both  the  United  States  and  southern 
Germany  are  similar ;  the  summers  are  hot  and  dry,  and  the  win- 
ters compel  the  use  of  preserved  and  dry  food  for  a  considerable 
length  of  time.  The  breeds  which  would  be  suitable  to  the  mild, 
moist,  and  even  climate  of  England,  are  not  exactly  adapted  to 
Germany  or  the  United  States,  and  we  must  hesitate  to  follow,  or 
must  follow  with  great  caution,  the  lead  of  the  English  breeders. 
But  the  example  or  success  of  the  Germans  may  be  made  more 
safely  applicable  to  our  circumstances,  inasmuch  as  the  conditions 
in  both  cases  are  similar.  This  coincidence  is  a  proof  of  the  fact, 
that  in  working  out  these  changes,  breeders  and  farmers  are  forced 
to  follow  certain  natural  laws,  and  that  as  they  work  in  conform- 
ity thereto,  they  succeed,  but  when  they  oppose  these  laws,  they 
must  necessarily  fail.  It  is  in  exact  accordance  with  this  fact  that 
we  find  it  difficult  or  impossible  to  preserve,  for  any  length  of  time, 
the  condition  of  sheep  imported  from  England,  more  especially 
of  the  more  highly  refined  breeds ;  but  that  we  can  easily  accli- 
mate their  produce,  or  build  up  cross  breeds  which  will  be  more 
profitable  and  convenient  for  us  to  keep.  With  our  wonderful 
diversity  of  climate,  soil,  and  surface,  and  with  the  varied  demand 
for  staples  for  manufactured  fabrics,  there  is  opened  a  field  for 
the  exercise  of  the  breeder's  skill  in  producing  new  races  to  accom- 
modate these  conditions,  and  to  meet  these  demands,  which  is 
hitherto  unexampled  in  the  history  of  agriculture.  This  is  no 
mere  matter  of  conjecture.  It  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  by 
experience  and  practice.  "Wool  of  the  cross  between  the  Cots- 
wold or  Leicester  rams  on  Merino  ewes  has  been  imported  into 
New  York  from  New  Zealand  and  Australia,  for  some  years  past, 
to  meet  the  demands  of  the  manufacturers  of  delaines  and  other 
staple  goods.  Our  wool-buyers  have  been  in  the  habit  of  going  to 


THE  VALUE  OF  CROSS-BRED  SHEEP. 


141 


142  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

those  distant  countries  to  select  wools  suitable  for  their  needs 
which  they  cannot  procure  at  home.  The  heavy  expenses  involved 
act  as  a  protection  to  this  industry  here,  not  to  speak  of  the  pres- 
ent import  duty  levied  on  foreign  wools.  Large  quantities  of  this 
cross-bred  wool  are  also  used  in  England,  where  it  cannot  be  pro- 
duced so  cheaply  as  here.  It  would  be  strange  indeed  if  we  can- 
not, with  our  vast  territory,  equally  favorable  in  climate  and  soil 
with  those  distant  regions  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  at  least 
compete  on  equal  terms  with  the  shepherds  of  those  countries, 
more  especially  as  we  enjoy  an  immense  advantage,  which  they 
do  not,  in  having  a  market  at  our  very  doors  for  the  mutton  which 
these  sheep  so  profitably  produce.  In  short,  the  production  of 
American  cross-bred  sheep  offers  a  most  enticing  field  for  experi- 
ment and  labor  both  to  the  skillful  breeder  and  the  enterprising 
farmer.  For  the  first  in  keeping  up  a  supply  of  pure  bred  rams, 
and  in  improving  their  quality  so  as  to  meet  the  demand  of  the 
farmer ;  and  for  the  latter  in  seeking  out,  selecting,  and  using  these 
pure  rams  on  our  native  sheep  with  proper  knowledge,  judgment, 
and  skill,  so  as  to  supply  the  demands  of  our  own  manufacturers 
at  least,  if  not  those  of  other  countries.  To  do  this  there  must  be 
an  actual  contact  and  interchange  of  ideas  and  experiences  be- 
tween the  woolen  manufacturer  and  fhe  breeder  and  farmer,  by 
means  of  which  the  needs  of  the  one  and  the  opportunities  and 
duties  of  the  others,  may  be  mutually  explained  and  made  known. 
Neither  branch  of  our  native  wool  industry  can  flourish  as  it 
should  and  might  without  this  interchange  of  views  and  the 
recognition  of  an  identity  of  interest. 


CHAPTER   VI. 
WOOL— ITS    STRUCTURE   AND    USES. 

Wool  in  its  character  and  structure  in  no  respect  differs  from 
hair.  When  hair  is  soft,  pliable,  and  of  a  spiral  or  wavy  form,  it 
is  what  we  call  wool.  Wool,  like  hair,  is  the  outer  covering  of 
some  species  of  animals,  and  is  a  growth  from  the  skin.  The  skin 
of  an  animal  is  a  composite  structure  consisting  of  two  portions, 
the  outer  and  insensible  layer  called  the  epidermis,  and  a  highly 
sensitive,  vascular  and  nervous  layer  beneath  this,  called  the 


STRUCTURE  OF  WOOL. 


143 


derma.  It  is  in  the  derma  that  the  hair  is  rooted,  and  from  it 
that  it  is  nourished.  The  hair,  (or  wool),  consists  of  two  portions, 
the  shaft,  or  that  which  pierces  through  the  epidermis  and  forms 
the  outer  coat  or  fleece,  and  the  bulb  or  root  which  is  imbedded  in 
the  derma.  The  bulb  of  the  hair  is  rooted  in  a  gland  called  the 
hair  follicle,  and  from  this  it  derives  the  cells  which  form  the  outer 
surface  of  the  hair.  These  cells  are  converted  into  flat  scales,  in- 
closing the  interior  fibrous  structure  of  the  hair,  and  as  they  are 
successively  produced,  they  overlap  like  shingles  on  a  roof,  or  the 
scales  of  a  pine  cone,  forming  the  imbricated  coat  of  the  hair  to 
be  hereafter  described  at  length.  Rising  into  the  hair  bulb  is  the 
hair  germ,  which  furnishes  the  hair  with  nutrition,  and  the  ele- 
ments of  its  growth.  On  each  side  of  the  hair  follicle  is  a  gland 
which  secretes  a  viscid  fluid.  These  glands,  known  as  the  sebace- 
ous glands,  open  by  small  canals  into  the  sheath  of  the  hair.  Other 


Fig.  47.— SECTION  OP  SKIN  HIGHLY  MAGNIFIED,  SHOWING  THE  GROWTH 
OF  THE  HAIB. 

sebaceous  glands  open  independently  upon  the  surface  of  the  epi- 
dermis. They  secrete  a  fluid  which  serves  to  lubricate  the  skin, 
and  in  the  sheep  supplies  the  oil  and  yolk  that  fill  that  pur- 
pose for  the  fleece  and  prevent  any  injury  to  the  wool  by  con- 
tinued rubbing,  or  "  cotting,"  or  felting,  in  consequence  of  the 
wearing  and  friction,  while  upon  the  sheep's  back.  In  a  healthy 
skin  this  secretion  with  those  of  other  glands,  (called  the  sudori- 


144 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


parous  glands),  which  are  situated  in  the  derma,  amount  to  a  total 
quantity  which  surpasses  that  of  the  evacuations  from  both  the 
bowels  and  kidneys. 

In  fig.  47  is  shown  the  structure  both  of  the  skin  and  the  hair, 
the  engraving,  (from  Chauveau's  Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Do- 
mestic Animals),  representing  a  section  of  the  skin  highly  magni- 
fied. The  epidermis  is  shown  at  A,  the  derma  at  B,  the  hair  follicle 
at  c,  the  sebaceous  glands  at  1,  the  bulb  or  root  of  the  hair  at  2,  the 
hair  at  3,  a  fat  cell  at  4,  a  sudoriparous  or  sweat  gland  at  5,  and  at  6 
the  excretory  duct  of  this  gland,  or  pore  of  the  skin. 

Hair  or  wool  is  composed  of  three  layers.  The  outer  one,  the 
epidermis,  is  very  thin,  consisting  of  the  flattened  cells  or  scales 
overlapping  as  previously  mentioned.  In  wool  these  imbricated 
scales  are  highly  developed,  and  fill  a  most  important  office,  giving 


Fig.  48.— APPEARANCE  OP  WOOL  WHEN  HIGHLY  MAGNIFIED. 

to  it  much  of  its  value  as  a  material  for  the  manufacture  of  cloth. 
When  examined  by  a  microscope  of  high  power,-  a  fiber  of  wool 
presents  the  appearance  shown  in  fig.  48.  The  discovery  of  the 
serrated  surface  of  wool  which  is  generally  attributed  to  Mr. 
Youatt,  was  previously  announced  by  M.  Monge,  in  Annales  de 
Chimie,  in  1795.  This  serrated  or  toothed  surface  confers  upon  wool 
its  felting  property.  When  wool  is  carded  it  is  torn  to  pieces  and 
mixed  and  twisted  in  every  direction.  The  waved  or  curved 
structure  of  the  fiber  of  some  qualities  of  wool  aids  in  this  twisting 
and  entangling  of  the  fibers,  (see  fig.  49),  and  the  points  of  the 
scales  projecting  as  so  many  minute  hooks  hold  the  entangled 
mass  together  closely  and  firmly.  Pressing,  rolling,  or  beating 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  WOOL  AND   HAIR. 


145 


the  wool  together,  causes  it  to  adhere  in  a  compact  mass,  in 
other  words  causes  it  to  felt  firmly  together,  and  the  more 
firmly,  the  more  it  is  rolled,  beaten,  or  worked.  These  scales 
are  very  minute  and  numerous;  in  the  length  of  one  inch  of  a 
fiber  of  fine  Saxony  wool,  there  are  no  less  than  2,720  of  them ;  in 
Southdown  wool  there  are  over  2,000,  and  in  the  Leicester  wool 
there  are  over  1,800  of  them  to 
every  inch.  Upon  the  whole  sur- 
face of  a  fiber  of  Merino  wool  one 
inch  long  and  V75o  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  there  are  over  23,000  of 
these  points.  The  more  numer- 
ous they  are,  and  the  more  waved 
or  curled  the  wool,  the  better  its 
f  elting  quality. 

The  second  layer,  the  cortical 
substance,  is  the  thickest  portion  of 
the  fiber.  It  also  contains  the 
coloring  matter.  It  is  fibrous  and 
striped  lengthways.  The  central 
portion  of  the  fiber  consists  of  the 
medullary  substance,  or  marrow, 
and  occupies  a  narrow,  irregular 
cavity.  Hair  or  wool  is  not  hollow  or  tubular,  as  is  frequently 
supposed,  but  solid,  and  consists  of  these  three  portions.  The  fiber 
grows  from  the  root,  and  increases  by  addition  of  cells  continuous- 
ly formed  in  the  follicle.  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  growth  and  per- 
fection of  the  wool  depends  in  the  most  intimate  manner  upon 
the  nutrition  and  perfect  health  of  the  animal.  An  interesting 
and  valuable  addition  to  the  natural  history  of  wool  and  hair  has 
recently  been  made  through  some  investigation  ordered  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States,  for  the  purpose  of 
identifying  the  presence  of  sheeps'  wool  in  manufactured  goods,  the 
materials  of  which  are  ostensibly  the  hair  of  the  cow  and  calf. 
The  investigations  were  made  by  Professors  John  L.  LeConte  and 
J.  J.  Woodward,  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  with  the  help  of  a  micro- 
scope magnifying  nearly  100,000  times,  (310  diameters).  The  full 
report  of  these  investigators^ is  published  in  the  Bulletin  of  the 
National  Association  of  Worn  Manufacturers,  Yol.  V,  No.  7, 1875, 
(Boston),  a  publication  of  the  greatest  value  to  intelligent  wool- 
growers  as  to  all  woolen  manufacturers.  After  describing  the  well 
known  structure  of  hair  and  wool,  the  report  proceeds :  "  But  not- 
withstanding this  similarity  of  structure,  most  of  the  individual 
7 


Fig.  49. — FIBERS  OP  WOOL. 


146  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

hairs  of  the  cow  and  calf  are  so  unlike  the  majority  of  those  of 
the  wool-bearing  animals  in  their  size  and  shape,  that  it  might 
seem  easy  to  make  the  distinction.  They  are  much  shorter,  much 
thicker  at  their  base,  taper  rapidly  towards  the  point ;  the  medulla 
occupies  a  larger  proportional  part  of  the  whole  hair,  and  the  free 
edges  of  the  scales  of  the  cuticle,  which  are  so  disposed  as  to  form 
from  twenty  to  forty  imbrications  to  the  Viooth  of  an  inch,  lie 
quite  smoothly  upon  the  surface  of  the  hairs,  so  that  their  con- 
tours, as  seen  under  the  microscope,  closely  approximate  continu- 
ous lines.  These  characters  are  so  well  marked  that  the  coarser 
hairs  of  the  cow  and  calf  can  readily  be  distinguished  from  the 
woolly  hairs  of  any  of  the  wool-bearing  animals.  On  the  other 
hand,  however,  the  majority  of  the  woolly  hairs  of  the  sheep  offer 
a  combination  of  characters  which  are  never  found  in  the  hairs  of 
the  cow  and  calf ;  namely,  each  of  these  hairs  extends  from  half 
an  inch  to  several  inches  in  length  without  any  medulla,  and 
without  perceptible  taper.  They  present  at  frequent  but  irregular 
intervals,  well-marked,  one-sided,  more  or  less  spirally  arranged 
thickenings  of  the  cortical  substance,  which  give  to  the  wool  its 
curly  character.  The  mean  diameter  of  each  hair  varies  from 
Veooth  to  the  Yioooth  of  an  inch,  or  even  less ;  and  the  scales  of  the 
cuticle  are  so  arranged  that  their  free  edges  project  somewhat, 
forming  well-marked  imbrications,  of  which  usually  from  fifteen 
to  thirty  can  be  counted  in  the  Viooth  of  an  inch.  The  fine  hairs 
of  the  goat  and  kid,  from  the  Yioooth  to  the  Yaoooth  of  an  inch  or 
less  in  diameter,  also  run  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  or  more, 
without  perceptible  taper,  without  medulla,  and  are  clothed  with  a 
cuticle  resembling  that  of  sheep's  wool,  but  are  almost,  or  alto- 
gether, devoid  of  the  irregular  thickenings  of  the  cortical  sub- 
stance which  characterizes  the  latter.  Similar  hairs  are  found  in 
certain  deer,  and  some  other  animals,  but  never  on  the  cow  or 
calf."  The  report  is  accompanied  by  highly  finished  heliotype 
illustrations  of  samples  of  different  kinds  of  hair  and  wool. 
The  chemical  composition  of  pure,  dry  wool,  is  as  follows : 

COMPOSITION  OF  PURE  WOOL. 

Carbon 49.25  per  cent. 

Hydrogen 7.57    "      " 

Nitrogen 15.86    "      " 

Sulphur 3.66    "      " 

Oxygen 23.66    "      " 

100.00    "      " 

The  fibers  of  fine  wool  are  very  closely  seated  upon  the  skin. 
The  pure  Merino  has  from  40,000  to  48,000  fibers  on  a  single 


THE   YOLK  OF  WOOL.  147 

square  inch  ;  the  original  coarse  wooled  breeds  have  from  5,000  to 
6,000  fibers  on  an  inch.  The  twentieth  cross  of  a  pure  Merino 
ram  upon  a  coarse  wool  race  had  no  more  than  25,000  fibers  to  the 
square  inch ;  this  fact  shows  very  forcibly  how  long  a  period 
it  may  take  to  remove  the  effects  of  one  cross,  for  if  this  state- 
ment be  true,  the  presence  of  only  Yi,048,687,  (less  than  one  mil- 
lionth part),  of  impure  blood  is  sufficient  to  reduce  the  fineness  of 
the  fleece  nearly  one-half.  The  yolk  which  is  secreted  from  the 
glands  of  the  skin  is  an  alkaline  substance,  partaking  of  the  char- 
acter of  a  soap.  At  its  secretion  it  is  liquid,  and  in  some  breeds 
of  sheep  it  remains  in  this  state,  moistening  and  softening  the 
fleece  ;  in  other  breeds,  particularly  some  families  of  the  Merinos, 
the  yolk  thickens  or  dries  into  a  sort  of  gum  or  wax  of  an  orange 
yellow  color,  which  adheres  to  the  wool  in  scales,  and  greatly  adds 
to  its  weight.  The  yolk  or  "  suint "  has  been  found  by  Dr. 
Voelcker  to  consist  of  a  combination  of  fatty  acids  with  potash, 
forming  a  potash  soap  which  is  soluble  in  water.  When  dried, 
the  yolk  contains  59  per  cent  of  fatty  compounds,  with  some  nitro- 
gen, and  41  per  cent  of  mineral  matter,  of  which  from  60  to  84  per 
cent  is  potash.  In  some  places  this  potash  is  profitably  recovered 
from  the  refuse  liquid  of  wool  washings.  In  November,  1865, 
Maura  ene  and  Rogelet  communicated  to  the  Chemical  Society  of 
Paris,  the  details  of  their  experiments  on  the  nature  of  suint, 
•which  led  them  to  take  out  a  patent  for  the  manufacture  of  potash 
salts  from  this  source.  They  showed  that  suint  is  made  up  of 
wulral  fatty  salts  containing  much  potash,  but  not  more  than 
traces  of  soda,  and  rarely  even  that;  that  the  soluble  portion 
yields  on  evaporation  and  calcination  a  mixture  consisting  mainly 
of  carbonate  of  potassium,  with  chloride,  sulphate,  phosphate,  and 
alumino-silicate  of  potassium  in  smaller  quantities,  also  a  little 
lime,  magnesia,  and  oxide  of  iron  and  manganese,  the  average 
composition  being 

Carbonate  of  potassium 86.78 

Chloride    "         "  6.18 

Sulphate    «        "  2.83 

Other  substances 4.21 

100.00 

The  yolk  soluble  in  water  forms  from  20  to  22  per  cent  of  the 
weight  of  the  fleece,  and  besides  this,  the  fleece  contains  from  7  to 
10  per  cent  of  oil,  which  is  not  removed  in  ordinary  brook  wash- 
ing unless  it  be  in  part  dissolved  by  the  action  of  the  supera- 
bundant potash  of  the  soapy  yolk.  When  the  oil  and  yolk 
are  removed  by  washing,  the  wool  becomes  harsh  and  dry  to 


148  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MAKUAL. 

the  touch.  The  presence  of  a  considerable  amount  of  yolk  in  the 
fleece  is  justly  supposed  to  indicate  a  superior  quality  in  the  wool, 
and  -while  excessive  yolk  is  undesirable,  it  is  a  disputed  point  just 
•when  that  excess  begins.  A  fleece  of  Merino  wool  that  loses  one- 
half  in  washing,  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  an  excess  of  yolk. 
Many  breeders  do  not  hesitate  to  go  beyond  this,  and  insist  that 
no  amount  of  yolk  can  be  called  excessive.  In  this  view  they  are 
supported  by  the  high  authority  of  Mr.  Youatt,  who  has  said : 
"  farmers  never  bestow  a  thought  on  yolk,  and  neither  understand 
nor  care  about  it ;  this  question  without  doubt  will  some  day  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  very  cardinal  and  essential  points  of  the 
sheep."  Mr,  Randall,  our  highest  authority  on  fine  wool,  in  his 
work  previously  referred  to,  does  not  favor  the  production  of  yolk 
to  an  excessive  extent.  He  very  justly  remarks  that  when  manu- 
facturers cease  to  pay  the  same  price  for  excessively  yolky  wools 
as  for  those  which  are  only  moderately  yolky,  the  breeding  of 
sheep  that  produce  four  pounds  of  yolk  for  one  pound  of  wool, 
must  go  out  of  fashion.  Perhaps  this  matter  may  safely  be  left  in 
the  hands  of  the  manufacturers,  who  are  not  apt  to  pay  for  what 
they  do  not  want ;  and  while  they  continue  to  buy  excessively 
yolky  wool,  it  will  be  most  profitable  for  the  farmer  to  produce  it. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF   WOOLS. 

Wool  is  generally  classed  as  short  and  long.  It  is  also  graded  as 
superfine,  fine,  medium,  and  coarse.  The  terms  carding  and  combing 
wools  are  no  longer  sufficiently  distinctive,  as  many  kinds  of  wool 
are  now  combed  that  were  formerly  carded,  and  the  continued 
improvement  of  combing  machinery  gradually  adds  to  the  list  of 
combing  wools.  Merino  wools  of  less  than  three  inches  in  length 
are  now  combed,  as  are  the  short  wools  of  the  Southdown  grades. 
It  is  very  important  for  wool-growers  to  know  exactly  the  wishes 
and  needs  of  the  wool  manufacturers,  and  to  seek  this  knowledge 
should  be  their  constant  aim.  At  present,  and  for  some  time  past, 
the  coarse  and  medium  wools  have,  in  many  parts  of  the  country, 
borne  the  same  price  as  the  finest  Merino  wools ;  in  some  markets 
fleeces  of  one-quarter  and  half-blood  Merinos  have  sold  for  more 
than  those  from  full-blood  animals.  The  quotations  of  wool  hi  the 
New  York  Mercantile  Journal  of  July  29th,  1875,  were  as  follows: 

NEW  YORK,   MICHIGAN,   AND  INDIANA  WOOLS. 

Super  Saxony  fleece ." , .  .50c.( 

Full  blood  Meriuo .50c.( 

i  to  t  blood  Merino 48c.< 

Common  fleeces 45c.< 

Combing  wool 


VALUE  OF  MEDIUM  WOOLS.  149 

OHIO  AND  PENNSYLVANIA  WOOLS. 

Choice  Saxony  fleece  XX 50c.@53  c. 

Full  blood  Merino  X :  4&c.(3)50  c. 

$  blood  Merino 50c.@54  c. 

i  blood  Merino 45c,@47ic. 

ILLINOIS,   WISCONSIN,   AND  IOWA  WOOLS. 

Super  Saxony 45c.@50c. 

Full  blood  Merino 45c.(o)50c. 

f  blood  Merino 46c.(o)50c. 

The  demand  of  manufacturers  is  clearly  for  medium  wools,  the 
3  reduce  of  half-bloods  or  grade  Merinos,  or  of  crosses  of  Merinos 
with  Southdowns.  The  chief  difficulty  in  wool-growing  is  the 
tendency  on  the  part  of  farmers  to  run  in  a  crowd  upon  the  same 
variety  and  quality ;  at  one  period  it  will  be  fine  wool,  at  another 
combing  wool,  and  often  they  are  led  to  breed  without  knowledge 
or  judgment.  A  great  variety  of  wools  is  needed  to  meet  the  de- 
mands of  manufacturers,  and  .when  a  farmer  has  become  possessed 
of  a  flock  of  the  right  sort,  his  best  course  is  to  keep  to  it,  and  not 
change  because  a  temporary  decline  in  his  class  of  wool  discour- 
ages him  for  a  season.  In  addition  to  these  grade  Merino  wools, 
there  is  a  constant  and  increasing  demand  for  combing  wools  for 
worsted  and  coarse  fabrics. 

Combing  wools  are  those  fitted  for  a  process  known  as  combing, 
which  consists  in  drawing  out  the  fibers  so  that  they  are  straight 
^nd  parallel,  the  shorter  portions  of  the  wool  called  "  noils  "  being 
removed  by  the  operation.  The  fibers  are  then  spun  into  worsted 
yarns ;  the  ends  of  the  fibers  being  covered  in  the  spinning,  these 
yarns  are  smooth  and  lustrous.  In  carding,  the  fibers  are  placed 
in  every  possible  position  with  regard  to  each  other ;  the  ends 
projecting  from  the  yarn,  form  a  nap  hi  the  woven  fabric  which 
covers  and  hides  the  threads.  Carding  wool  must  therefore  be 
short  and  full  of  curls  ;  combing  wool,  on  the  contrary,  needs  to 
be  long  and  free  from  curls  and  of  a  bright  and  lustrous  surface. 
Long  Merino  wools,  although  they  are  combed  for  making  fine 
cloths  without  nap,  and  for  delaines,  cashmeres,  coburgs,  and  other 
dress  goods,  are  not  designated  combing  wools,  but  as  delaine 
wools.  Common  flannels  require  in  their  manufacture  the  coarsest 
common  native  wools  up  to  medium  Merino  wools.  For  fine 
flannels,  fine  to  the  finest  wools  are  used;  for  blankets,  the  most 
ordinary  native  wools,  "  noils,"  medium  Merino  wools  and  South- 
down and  grade  Southdown  wools  are  used.  For  shawls,  all 
grades  of  Merino  wools,  up  to  picklock,  are  used ;  some  fleecy 
varieties  are  made  of  worsted  combing  wools  ;  felted  cloth  skirts 
and  other  goods  are  made  of  the  lowest  grades  of  wool,  but  the 


150  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

finer  kinds,  as  piano  and  table  covers,  are  made  of  medium  Merino 
wools.  Knitted  goods,  such  as  undershirts,  vests,  drawers,  hose, 
etc.,  require  a  great  variety  of  wools  from  the  lowest  qualities  up 
to  the  high  grades  of  Merino ;  certain  fancy  varieties  requiring 
the  finer  kinds  of  combing  wools.  Fancy  cassimeres,  meltons, 
beaver  cloths,  and  overcoatings,  require  chiefly  medium  grades  of 
Merino  wool,  a  small  quantity  only  of  the  finer  grades  being  re- 
quired for  the  best  qualities.  For  mixing  with  shoddy,  which  is 
an  extensive  manufacture,  the  finest  and  longest  Merino  wools  are 
found  the  most  profitable,  as  such  wool  carries  the  greatest  quan- 
tity of  the  short  fiber  of  the  substitute.  Ladies'  cloths,  cloakings, 
and  thin  dress  goods  require  fine  long  Merino  wool ;  the  finest 
and  longest  Merino  wool  is  used  for  men's  fine  worsted  coatings. 
Serges,  moreens,  alpacas,  lastings,  mohair  lusters,  furniture  dam- 
ask, reps,  bunting  for  flags,  webbings  of  all  kinds,  sashes, 
picture  cords,  tassels,  and  soft  goods,  such  as  nubias  and  shawls, 
braids  and  bindings,  are  all  made  of  the  long  combing  wool 
of  the  Lincolns,  Leicesters,  and  Cotswolds,  or  their  grades. 
For  various  carpets,  coarse  Texan  or  Mexican  and  California 
wools  are  used,  and  similar  grades  of  foreign  wool  known  as  Chili 
and  Cordova  carpet  wools.  This  enumeration  indicates  as  closely 
as  need  be,  what  kinds  of  wool  the  American  farmer  may  grow 
with  safety  and  without  risk  of  wanting  a  market.  Considering 
that  the  imports  of  wool  of  many  of  the  grades  mentioned,  and  of 
the  recapitulated  woolen  goods,  amount  every  year  to  fifty  mil- 
lions of  dollars  or  over,  there  would  certainly  seem  to  be  no  danger 
that  the  farmer  will  lack  a  profitable  market  for  any  kind  of  wool 
he  may  find  it  convenient  to  grow. 

PURE   AND    GRADE   MERINO   WOOL. 

It  will  be  noticed  how  large  a  proportion  of  the  foregoing  man- 
ufactures derive  their  material  from  the  Merino,  either  directly  in 
its  pure  state,  or  indirectly  as  grades  or  cross  breeds.  Some  infor- 
mation as  to  the  character  of  the  Merino  wool,  and  the  tests  by 
which  superior  breeding  animals  may  be  known  and  selected  for 
the  improvement  of  native  sheep,  will  therefore  not  be  out  of 
place.  The  character  of  a  Merino  fleece  may  be  judged  by  the 
following  tests,  viz : 

Strength  of  Fiber.— This  is  indicated  by  the  amount  of  grease  in 
the  wool,  abundance  of  oil  or  yolk  indicating  a  healthy  condition 
of  the  animal.  The  first  sign  of  disease  is  a  change  in  the  charac- 
ter of  the  secretions,  and  the  skin  being  the  chief  secreting  organ 
of  the  body,  it  is  there  that  the  change  may  be  soonest  noticed. 


HOW   TO   JUDGE   WOOL. 


151 


The  moment  the  health  of  the  sheep  fails,  the  growth  of  the  wool 
is  arrested,  along  with  the  secretion  of  the  oil  or  yolk,  and  the 
continuity  of  the  strength  of  the  fiber  is  destroyed  to  the  great 
reduction  of  its  value. 

Fineness. — In  a  perfect  fleece,  the  wool  should  be  equally  fine 
over  the  whole  body ;  coarser  wool  may  be  looked  for,  if  any- 
where, on  the  top  of  the  shoulders  and  the  rump,  and  a  weaker 
quality  on  the  breast  and  belly.  The  finest  wool  is  but  V13oo  of 
an  inch  in  thickness,  ordinary  wools  YTBO  to  YSSO  of  an  inch  in 
diameter. 

Curl. — The  curl  of  the  wool  is  very  important.  This  is  the 
waved  or  crimped  character  of  the  fiber  which  in  the  perfect  wool 
consists  of  minute  bends  or  crimps.  There  should  be  a  perfect 
regularity  in  these  waves,  which  ought  not  to  be  so  abrupt  as  to 
appear  as  folds.  In  very  fine  wool  there  should  be  at  least  30  of 
these  waves  to  the  inch  in  length.  (See  d,  e,  fig.  49.) 

Thickness. — This  quality  refers  to  the  closeness  of  the  fibers 
upon  the  skin.  A  pure  Merino  should  have  from  40,000  to  48,000 
fibers  upon  every  square  inch  of  its  skin.  The  weight  of  a  fleece 
must  necessarily  depend  on  this  characteristic. 

Closure  of  the  Fleece. — The  closure  of  the  fleece  on  its  outer 
surface  is  of  great  importance,  for  the  reason  that  a  well  closed 
fleece  is  im- 
pervious to 
dust  and  dirt 
which  would 
otherwisefind 
its  way  into 
the  wool  and 
injure  its 
quality.  The 
closure  is  ef- 
abundance  of  yolk 


Fig.  50. 
focted  by  the 


Fig.  51. 


which  gathers  at  the  ends  of  the 
wool,  and  mats  the  fibers  together. 
The  viscid  gum  gathers  dust,  that 
coats  the  fleece  with  a  black  surface,  which  feels  to  the  hand 
as  a  firm  crust.  When  the  crust  is  pressed  the  elasticity  of 
the  fleece  is  at  once  perceived.  Upon  parting  the  fleece  to  inspect 
the  wool,  the  experience  or  ignorance  of  the  operator  is  at  once 
perceptible.  He  should  grasp  the  fleece  at  the  points  of  the  fibers 
with  the  fingers  and  thumbs  of  both  hands,  and  part  the  surface 


152 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


Fig.  52. 


Fig.  53. 


gently,  exposing  the  wool  to  the  skin.  The  wool,  on  opening  the 
fleece,  should  appear  beautifully  white  and  glossy,  or  rich  yellow 
or  orange  colored,  according  to  the  style  of  the  sheep.  The  fleece 
is  then  closed  carefully  without  allowing  any  dust  to  fall  down 
into  the  opening.  The  appearance  of  the  open  fleece  should  be 
banded  with  varying  colors  of  light  and  darker  yellow  or  orange, 
as  in  fig.  50,  or  when  opened,  as 
a  cup  in  fig.  51.  .A  well  closed 
fleece  will  exhibit  a  surface  as 
shown  at  fig.  52,  and  a  badly 
closed  one  will  appear  as  at  fig. 
53.  The  well  closed  fleece  is  di- 
vided into  small  sections,  which 
are  tabular  or  flat  and  smooth 
upon  the  surface ;  when  the  fleece  is  uneven  in  length,  it  cannot 
close  well,  and  a  few  fibers  only  are  matted  together ;  the  surface 
is  then  dotted  and  not  smooth ;  this  forms  the  defect  known  as 
"  toppiness"  The  defects  in  wool  may  be  enumerated  as  follows : 

"  Stripy  "  or  Watery  Wool,  generally  shows  itself  in  inferior  ani- 
mals on  or  near  the  shoulder,  where  the  best  wool  ought  to  be. 
The  wool  subject  to  this  defect  is  devoid  of  those  beautiful  natu- 
ral curves  or  waves  which  are  characteristic  of  really  good  wool. 
When  compressed  in  the  hand,  it  has  no  elasticity,  and  handles  in 
a  dead  and  lifeless  manner,  more  like  flax  than  wool.  Such  wool 
is  only  fit  for  making  inferior  goods.  This  defect  is  a  sure 
proof  of  impure  blood,  and  no  sheep  exhibiting  it  should  be  bred 
from. 

Toppiness  is  not  of  much  importance  as  affecting  the  quality  of 
the  wool,  but  it  indicates  a  defect  in  the  breeding  of  the  sheep.  It 
has  already  been  described.  When  this  defect,  however,  extends 
to  a  matting  together  of  the  wool  at  the  ends  of  the  points,  a 
quantity  of  noils  are  made  in  working  the  wool,  and  there  is  a 
waste.  When  toppiness  is  found  in  the  fleece  of  old  sheep,  it  be- 
comes a  more  serious  objection,  as  it  is  quite  possible  that  a  lamb's 
fleece  may  be  toppy  by  reason  of  uneven  growth  in  its  early  life, 
and  after  having  once  been  shorn,  the  defect  may  not  reappear. 

Broad-topped  Wool  is  seriously  defective,  and  very  decidedly 
reduced  in  value ;  no  animal  having  this  defect  should  be  kept  in 
a  flock  having  any  pretentions  to  character  for  excellence.  It 
consists  in  an  interlacing  of  the  ends  of  the  fibers  which  are  split 
from  the  top  downwards.  The  fleece  appears  in  good  condition 
superficially,  with  a  good  even  top,  but  the  surface  is  divided  into 


DEFECTS   OF   WOOL.  153 

broad  masses  or  "  tops,"  and  when  one  endeavors  to  part  these  to 
examine  the  wool,  the  mass  is  found  to  be  almost  felted  together, 
and  must  he  torn  apart.  This  matted  wool  is  dead,  and  breaks  off 
in  the  process  of  manufacture,  causing  very  great  loss  of  material. 

Felty  Wool  is  that  which  has  a  tendency  to  felt  together  on  the 
sheep's  back.  The  defect  is  caused  by  an  absence  of  yolk,  and  in 
highly  yolked  sheep,  by  a  continued  wet  season,  which  washes 
the  yolk  from  the  fleece.  It  is  a  direct  result  of  low  condition 
from  poor  feed,  or  of  chronic  ill  health.  Some  sheep  are  consti- 
tutionally subject  to  "felty  wool,"  and  should  be  weeded  out  of 
the  flock. 

Cloudy  Wool  is  that  which  adheres  together  from  the  bottom  of 
the  fleece  upwards,  but  not  in  so  great  a  degree  as  in  felty  wool. 
A  flossy  appearance  is  discovered  at  the  bottom  of  the  staple, 
which  is  removed  by  the  comb.  In  clothing  wools  this  is  not  so 
objectionable  as  in  combing  wools ;  in  the  latter  the  floss  is  thrown 
out  and  becomes  waste.  This  is  also  a  constitutional  defect,  and 
sheep  so  affected  should  be  weeded  out  of  an  otherwise  good  flock. 

Kemp  is  very  easily  detected,  and  although  it  may  be  found  in 
but  a  few  spots  at  first  sight,  it  indicates  that  it  exists  all  through 
the  fleece.  It  consists  of  coarse,  white  hairs,  projecting  from  the 
surface  of  the  fleece,  on  the  face,  the  forearm,  the  inside  of  the 
flank,  and  in  rams  on  the  scrotum  also.  Whenever  it  is  apparent 
in  these  places,  it  will  invariably  be  found  through  the  greater 
part  of  the  fleece,  chiefly  on  the  whole  of  the  belly,  half-way  up 
the  sides,  on  the  rump,  thighs,  and  shoulder.  In  these  places, 
short  white  hairs  will  be  found  in  the  staple,  at  the  roots  of  the 
wool ;  and  as  these  hairs  will  not  take  any  dye,  they  injure  the 
fleece  for  the  manufacture  of  dress  goods  or  fine  cloths.  Kemp 
lessens  the  value  of  the  wool  nearly  or  quite  one-half,  and  should 
make  a  breeding  animal  worth  no  more  than  its  weight  as  mutton. 
On  some  heavily  wrinkled  Merino  sheep,  these  kempy  hairs  may 
be  seen  on  the  edges  of  the  wrinkles,  and  on  the  back  of  the  head, 
but  nowhere  else.  But  it  is  even  then  a  fatal  objection  to  such 
sheep  as  breeders,  for  this  is  kemp,  and  may  appear  in  all  the  pro- 
duce of  such  sheep,  and  there  can  be  no  certainty  but  some  of  the 
produce  may  be  badly  affected. 

Break  in  wool  renders  the  fleece  absolutely  worthless  for  any 
combing  purpose,  and  however  fine  the  staple,  or  otherwise  good 
in  quality,  it  can  only  then  be  manufactured  into  a  class  of  goods 
for  which  inferior  wool  is  used.  It  is  exactly  what  its  name  im- 
plies. When  a  breachy  staple  is  taken  and  stretched,  it  parts  with 


154  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

great  ease  at  the  middle  or  some  portion  of  its  length.  There 
is  a  weak  spot,  and  if  the  fiber  is  examined  with  a  microscope,  it 
will  be  found  very  much  attenuated  at  that  spot,  and  of  a  dull, 
dead  appearance.  From  what  has  been  already  said  about  the 
structure  and  growth  of  wool,  it  will  be  easily  understood  that 
when  by  bad  management,  neglect,  starvation,  overfeeding,  irreg- 
ularity in  feeding,  want  of  water,  or  any  other  evil  which  affects 
the  condition  or  health  of  the  sheep,  the  growth  of  the  wool  is 
temporarily  stopped,  even  for  a  day,  this  suspension  of  growth 
must  inevitably  be  marked  by  a  weakness  in  the  fiber,  which  can 
never  be  remedied.  As  the  wool  grows,  this  weak  spot  is  carried 
forward,  and  if  the  evil  is  soon  removed  and  the  sheep  recovers 
quickly,  it  is  still  there  and  there  it  remains.  No  defect  is  so  fre- 
quent as  this ;  to  avoid  it,  the  flock  must  be  kept  with  perfect 
regularity,  and  must  receive  no  check  for  however  short  a  time  it 
may  be.  This  involves  the  most  skillful  and  careful  management, 
which  is  unfortunately  too  rare.  Regular  poor  feed  may  make  an 
inferior  staple,  but  one  worth  more  than  a  breachy  staple,  which 
may  result  from  one  single  neglect  in  the  course  of  a  season.  Want 
of  water  causes  more  break  in  wool  thr.n  any  other  evil  to  which 
sheep  are  subjected  by  careless  owners  or  ignorant  shepherds. 

Uniformity  in  the  fleece  covers  many  minor  defects,  and  to  de- 
termine the  evenness  or  uniformity  of  the  fleece,  the  shoulder  is 
first  examined.  Here  the  finest  and  best  wool  should  be  found. 
Taking  this  as  the  standard,  the  wool  from  the  ribs,  thigh, 
rump,  and  breech,  is  compared  with  it ;  the  nearer  the  latter  ap- 
proaches this  in  quality,  the  better.  If  it  is  all  equal  in  fineness, 
the  fleece  will  be  "  even  "  in  regard  to  fineness.  If  the  wool  on  all 
the  parts  mentioned  is  reasonably  regular  in  length,  and  near  to 
the  standard  in  this  respect,  the  fleece  is  "  even"  as  regards  length 
of  staple.  The  density  is  then  tested.  The  hand  is  closed  upon  a 
portion  of  the  rump  and  on  the  loin,  and  if  the  fleece  is  found  to 
be  as  dense  and  elastic  or  springy  on  those  parts  as  it  is  at  the 
shoulder,  the  fleece  is  "  even  "  as  regards  density.  A  perfect  fleece 
will  be  found  of  nearly  equal  fineness  from  the  shoulder  to  the 
thigh;  of  nearly  equal  length  at  the  shoulder,  rib, thigh,  and  back; 
of  equal  density  on  the  shoulder  and  across  the  loins,  and  free 
from  any  of  the  defects  before  mentioned. 

Most  of  the  points  here  indicated,  both  as  regards  defects  and 
good  qualities,  refer  to  other  wools  as  well  as  to  that  of  the  Meri- 
no; those  points  which  depend  on  the  peculiar  character  of 
Merino  wool  and  its  excessive  yolkiness  will  be  readily  understood 
as  necessarily  applying  to  that  alone,  and  those  which  depend  on 


WASHING  WOOL.  155 

the  organic  structure  of  wool  and  the  condition  of  the  sheep,  to 
all  sorts  of  wool  alike. 

Wool  in  its  natural  condition  contains  many  impurities,  dirt  of 
all  kinds,  sand,  dung,  and  the  usual  secretions  of  the  skin,  and  be- 
fore it  can  become  fitted  for  the  uses  of  the  manufacturer,  it  must 
be  freed  from  these  impurities.  The  wool-buyer,  who  generally 
comes  between  the  farmer  and  the  manufacturer,  does  not  demand 
that  the  wool  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed,  but  only  freed  from 
its  grosser  impurities.  No  washing  that  the  farmer  could  give 
his  fleeces  would  be  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  the  manufacturer, 
who  scours  the  wool  in  hot  soapsuds  before  he  can  cleanse  it  suffi- 
ciently. But  nevertheless,  the  buyer  prefers  the  fleeces  to  be 
partly  cleansed,  and  this  partial  cleansing  is  what  is  generally 
known  as  "  brook  washing." 

WASHING  THE  WOOL  on  the  sheep's  back  is  the  usual  practice. 
There  are  several  methods  of  doing  this.  Where  a  brook  or  river 
can  be  used  for  the  purpose,  all  that  is  needed  is  to  choose  a  place 
where  the  water  is  waist  deep,  and  the  bottom  is  gravelly.  A 
muddy  or  sandy  bottom  is  to  be  avoided,  as  it  will  be  impossible 
to  prevent  some  of  the  bottom  from  being  stirred  up  and  mingling 
with  the  fleece.  Cases  have  been  known  in  which  such  a  bottom 
has  been  chosen  for  this  purpose  with  the  special  object  of  adding 
to  the  weight  of  the  fleece  by  the  admixture  of  sand.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  say  that  this  mode  of  cheating  can  never  be  profita- 
ble ;  if  one  lot  of  fleeces  thus  adulterated  be  palmed  off  upon  the 
buyer,  his  remedy  may  be  a  severe  one,  and  at  the  best  the  cheat 
will  not  be  forgotten.  Generally,  however,  buyers  are  not  to  be 
imposed  upon,  but  look  sharply  enough  after  their  own  interests 
to  discover  all  attempts  at  dishonesty,  and  to  make  the  perpetrator 
pay  soundly  for  his  error.  In  washing  and  making  up  wool,  the 
most  thorough  honesty  will  be  found  to  pay  well  in  the  long  run, 
and  a  reputation  for  fair  dealing  will  often  be  found  to  have  a 
direct  money  value,  especially  when  the  market  happens  to  be 
against  the  seller. 

Soft  water  is  to  be  preferred  for  washing  wool.  Hard  water 
leaves  the  wool  harsh  and  dry  to  the  hand,  and  detracts  from  its 
appearance  in  the  market.  Soft  water  leaves  the  wool  soft  and 
mellow,  and  it  more  rapidly  recovers  it?  tone  and  elasticity  when 
washed  in  water  free  from  lime.  The  ground  having  been  chosen, 
the  sheep  should  be  closely  penned  upon  the  bank  of  the  stream  ; 
the  side  of  the  pen  next  the  stream  should  be  narrow,  with  a  pas- 
sage-way leading  to  the  water.  A  plank  platform,  projecting  over 
the  bank,  from  which  the  sheep  can  be  plunged  directly  into  the 


156  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

water,  is  very  convenient.  The  washers  enter  the  stream  and  re- 
ceive the  sheep  from  the  hands  of  the  drivers,  plunging  them 
bodily  beneath  the  surface,  two  or  three  times.  -  In  catching  the 
sheep  and  handling  them  in  the  water,  the  assistants  should  avoid 
pulling  the  wool.  If  a  sheep  is  hauled  around  by  the  wool,  the 
skin  is  bruised,  and,  the  wool  is  injured  and  weakened  at  the 
bruised  spots.  To  catch  a  sheep  it  should  be  seized  with  the  right 
hand  by  the  hind  leg  above  the  hock,  firmly  with  the  whole  hand, 
yet  without  unnecessary  violence.  The  pressure  upon  the  sinew 
above  the  hock  joint  paralyses  the  leg  for  a 
moment,  and  the  sheep  will  rarely  struggle. 
The  left  hand  is  then  slipped  around  the 
breast,  and  the  shepherd  has  perfect  control 
of  the  heaviest  sheep,  without  pulling  in  the 
least  upon  the  wool.  A  crook,  fig.  54,  is  a 
convenient  implement  with  which  to  catch 
wild  or  unruly  sheep.  It  is  quietly  passed 
in  front  of  the  leg,  which  is  seized  and  held 
while  the  shepherd  secures  the  sheep  in  the 
way  described.  After  the  sheep  is  thorough- 
ly soaked,  the  animal's  head  is  held  above 
water,  while  the  fleece  is  shaken  and  squeezed, 
so  as  to  free  it  from  dirt.  As  many  as  pos- 
sible of  the  tags  and  matted  locks  around 
the  breech  should  be  opened  and  cleansed. 
When  this  has  been  done,  the  sheep  is 
passed  to  another  washer,  who  finishes  the 
washing,  and  directs  the  sheep  to  the  bank,  squeezing  the  water 
from  its  fleece  as  it  emerges  from  the  stream.  A  clean,  grassy 
bank  should  be  chosen.  Some  long  wool  sheep,  with  heavy  fleeces, 
which  hold  a  great  quantity  of  water,  may  need  some  help  to  get 
upon  their  feet  as  they  reach  the  bank.  Ewes  that  have  not 
lambed  should  be  handled  carefully  in  the  washing,  although  it  is 
rarely,  in  well  managed  flocks,  that  ewes  are  allowed  to  be  in  lamb 
at  this  time. 

This  method  of  washing  is  often  very  disagreeable  and  injurious 
to  those  who  practice  it.  Where  ague  is  prevalent,  or  where 
rheumatism  is  feared,  it  is  better  to  choose  some  other  plan.  A 
rough  dam  may  be  made  in  a  small  stream,  and  a  spout  placed  in 
the  dam.  beneath  which  the  sheep  may  be  washed.  A  sparred 
roadway  may  be  laid  across  the  stream,  through  which  the  water 
will  escape.  By  wearing  rubber  thigh  boots,  and  a  rubber  apron, 
the  washers  may  be  kept  dry,  and  avoid  the  danger  of  long  con- 


WASHING   THE   SHEEP. 


157 


tinued  exposure  to  chilly  water.  In  fig.  55  is  au  illustration  of 
this  method  of  washing.  For  a  large  flock,  the  spout  may  be 
made  to  extend  across  the  whole  dam,  so  that  several  sheep  may 
be  washed  at  the  same  time,  each  sheep  being  passed  from  hand 


Fig.  55. — ARRANGEMENT  FOR  WASHING  SHEEP. 

to  hand,  until  finished  by  the  last  one.  With  sufficient  help,  one 
sheep  per  minute  may  easily  be  washed  by  this  method.  After 
the  sheep  are  washed,  they  should  be  kept  in  a  clean  field,  and  in 
a  clean  yard  at  night,  for  the  week  at  least  before  shearing,  to  per- 


158  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

niit  the  fleece  to  dry  and  to  regain  sufficient  yolk  to  recover  a  soft 
and  mellow  handling. 

TAGGING  AND  TRIMMING  THE  FEET.— If  the  sheep  are  very 
dirty,  and  have  not  been  kept  trimmed  about  the  tail,  it  is  advisa- 
ble that  they  should  be  tagged  before  they  are  washed.  The 
coarse  soiled  tag-locks  about  the  hinder  parts,  and  the  belly  of  the 
rams  and  wethers,  may  be  clipped  off  in  the  spring  and  thrown 
into  a  basket  or  barrel  to  be  soaked  and  washed  by  themselves. 
The  same  time  will  be  the  most  convenient  to  trim  the  feet,  which 
is  a  more  necessary  thing  to  do  than  is  generally  supposed.  The 
toes  of  old  sheep,  upon  soft  pastures,  will  grow  long  and  turn  up, 
and  cause  lameness,  or  the  soles  and  edges  of  the  hoof  will  become 
ragged  and  worn,  the  horn  turning  under  at  the  edges.  In  this 
condition  the  feet  gather  filth  or  small  stones  and  gravel,  which 
work  into  the  hoof  and  cause  disease.  Foot-rot  is  in  many  cases 
thus  engendered.  The  feet  should  then  be  trimmed  at  washing 
time,  if  not  oftener.  A  sharp  knife  may  be  used  to  pare  the  ragged 
edges  of  the  hoof  and  the  sole,  and  toe  nippers  to  shorten  the  toes. 
A  pair  of  common  wire-workers'  cutting  nippers  may  be  used  for 
the  latter  purpose.  The  edge  of  the  nippers  should  be  filed  sharp, 
with  the  bevel  on  the  inside,  and  brought  to  a  smooth  edge  with 
a  piece  of  oil-stone. 

SHEAKING. — Sheep  should  not  be  shorn  until  the  weather  has 
become  warm  and  settled.  May  is  the  usual  time  for  shearing  in 
the  northern  states.  The  tools  of  the  shearer  are  a  pair  of  shears, 
and  if  desired,  a  shearing-bench  upon  which  sheep  may  be  placed 
to  avoid  the  necessity  of  his  stooping  so  much  as  is  required  when 
the  sheep  are  laid  upon  the  floor.  The  common  shears  with  a 
thumb  piece  upon  one  side,  and  an  easy  spring  no  stronger  than 
will  be  sufficient  to  make  the  shears  open  freely  when  released 
from  pressure,  is  the  best  tool  for  the  shearer.  Several  new  and 
patented  shears  have  been  introduced,  which  the  inventors  claim 
may  be  used  even  by  inexperienced  persons  without  danger  of 
cutting  the  sheep's  skin.  A  trial  of  these  shears  does  not  support 
this  claim,  and  the  common  shears  are  not  yet  superseded  by  any 
of  these  so-called  improvements.  The  shears  should  be  brought 
to  a  fine,  sharp  edge  upon  a  fine  oil-stone.  The  bevel  of  the  cut- 
ting edge  should  be  about  35  degrees,  or  somewhat  more  than  that 
of  a  common  pair  of  scissors,  and  less  than  that  of  a  plane  iron. 

The  floor  of  the  shearing  room  should  be  kept  perfectly  free 
from  straw,  chaff,  or  litter,  and  if  a  boy  is  kept  constantly  at  work 
with  a  broom  hi  his  hand  removing  dirt,  tags,  and  rubbish,  his 


SHEARING.  159 

time  will  be  well  employed.  The  shearer  has  better  control  over 
the  sheep  when  on  the  floor  than  on  the  bench,  and  the  handling 
is  not  the  same  under  both  circumstances.  In  shearing  on  a  bench 
the  shearer  catches  the  sheep  by  the  left  hind  leg,  backs  it  towards 
the  bench,  and  rolls  it  over  upon  it.  He  then  sets  the  sheep  on  its 
rump,  and  standing  with  his  left  foot  upon  the  bench,  lays  the 
sheep's  neck  across  his  left  knee,  with  its  right  side  against  his 
body.  The  two  forelegs  are  then  taken  under  the  left  arm,  and 
the  fleece  is  opened  up  and  down  along  the  center  of  the  belly  by 
small  short  clips  with  the  shears.  The  left  side  of  the  belly  and 
brisket  are  then  sheared.  The  tags  are  clipped  from  the  inside  of 
the  hind  legs  and  about  the  breech,  and  thrown  upon  the  floor. 
They  should  be  swept  up  at  once  and  gathered  into  a  basket,  and 
by  no  means  allowed  to  mingle  with  the  fleece  wool.  The  breech 
is  then  shorn  as  far  as  can  be  reached.  The  wool  from  the  point 
of  the  shoulder  is  then  clipped  as  far  as  the  but  of  the  ear.  The 
wool  is  shorn  around  the  carcass  and  neck  to  the  foretop,  pro- 
ceeding down  the  side,  taking  the  foreleg  and  going  as  far  over 
the  back  as  possible,  which  will  be  two  or  three  inches  past  the 
back  bone.  When  the  joint  of  the  thigh,  (the  stifle),  is  reached, 
the  shears  are  inserted  at  the  inside  of  the  hock  and  the  wool  shorn 
around  the  leg  back  to  the  thigh  joint.  The  wool  over  the  rump 
is  then  shorn  past  the  tail.  The  sheep  is  now  completely  shorn 
on  one  side,  and  two  or  three  inches  over  on  the  other  side,  along 
the  back  from  neck  to  tail.  It  is  then  taken  by  the  left  hind 
leg,  and  swung  around  with  the  back  to  the  shearer,  leaving 
some  wool  beneath  the  left  hip,  which  will  ease  the  position  of  the 
animal,  and  keep  it  more  quiet.  The  wool  is  then  shorn  from  the 
head  and  neck  down  the  right  side,  taking  the  legs  and  brisket  on 
the  way.  The  fleece  is  now  separated.  The  job  is  completed 
by  clipping  the  tags  and  loose  locks  from  the  legs. 

To  shear  on  the  floor,  the  sheep  is  set  upon  its  rump,  with  the 
head  thrown  back  beneath  the  left  arm  of  the  shearer,  and  its 
back  toward  him.  The  wool  is  then  opened  at  the  neck,  and 
clipped  downwards  in  regular  lines  on  the  right  side  from  belly  to 
back,  and  over  the  spine  as  far  as  possible  on  the  other  side  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  has  already  been  described.  The  sheep 
is  then  laid  on  its  shorn  side,  and  the  shearer,  kneeling  on  the  left 
knee,  and  straddling  the  sheep,  with  the  left  foot  laid  over  the 
sheep's  neck,  removes  the  fleece  from  the  left  side,  and  finishes 
by  removing  tag  locks  from  the  legs  and  scrotum.  In  bad  shear- 
ing, the  greatest  injury  to  the  fleece  takes  place  on  the  back,  and  is 
caused  by  the  operator  .not  raising  his  hand,  so  as  to  keep  the 


160  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

points  of  the  shears  close  down  to  the  skin.  This  is  known 
as  "  cutting  through  ; "  it  takes  place  when  the  sheep  is  being 
shorn  on  one  side ;  and,  in  shearing  over  the  back,  the  points  of 
the  shears  cut  nearly  or  quite  through  the  fleece,  from  the  inside 
to  ths  out ;  then,  when  the  animal  is  being  shorn  on  the  other,  or 
"  turning  out "  side,  the  shears  are  again  pointed  upwards,  and  the 
cuts  on  the  first  and  last  side  overlap  each  other,  causing  the  fleece 
to  part  in  two  halves  all  along  the  back.  No  good  shearer  makes 
second  cuts;  the  fact  that  wool  has  been  left  by  the  first  cut 
proves  that  the  shears  have  not  been  held  properly ;  and  the  wool 
removed  by  a  second  cut  being  perfectly  useless,  entails  a  severe 
loss  on  the  manufacturer,  and  greatly  lowers  the  repute  of  the 
brand  in  the  markets.  Cutting  through,  and  a  habit  of  continually 
making  second  cuts,  are  the  most  objectionable  characteristics  of 
the  unskillful  shearer.  A  sheep  may  be  shorn  so  close  as  to  satisfy 
the  most  exacting  employer,  and  yet  it  may  be  shorn  very  badly  ; 
and  the  only  conclusive  test  of  good  shearing,  or  the  reverse,  is  to 
be  found  not  on  the  outside  of  the  animal,  but  on  the  inside  of  the 
fleece. 

"When  the  sheep's  skin  has  been  unavoidably  cut  in  shearing, 
each  cut  should  be  smeared  with  tar,  which  will  prevent  flesh  flies 
from  depositing  their  eggs  in  the  wound,  and  probably  avoid  after 
trouble. 

It  is  said  to  be  a  fact  that  newly  shorn  rams  are  incapable  of 
breeding  until  their  fleeces  have  recovered  considerable  growth. 
Some  evidence  in  support  of  this  assertion  is  given  in  a  pamphlet 
published  in  Australia,  in  which  the  author,  Mr.  J.  B.  Graham,  the 
superintendent  of  an  extensive  sheep  "station"  on  the  Murray 
River,  states  that  in  a  flock  of  4,000  ewes  and  100  rams  newly 
shorn,  he  had  but  165  lambs,  and  on  another  occasion  a  flock  of 
100  ewes,  which  were  drafted  with  4  rams,  newly  shorn,  produced 
only  9  lambs.  On  another  station  when  the  ewes  were  coupled 
with  newly  shorn  rams,  there  were  not  5  per  cent  of  lambs.  This, 
if  a  fact,  is  more  curious  than  important  in  this  country,  where, 
except  in  California,  sheep  are  not  shorn  near  the  breeding  season. 
If  wool  were  not  shorn,  it  would  be  shed  annually,  or  its  growth 
would  be  rendered  uneven,  and  its  fiber  weakened  at  the  season 
when  the  coat  of  an  animal  covered  with  hair  is  usually  shed.  A 
fleece  that  is  suffered  to  grow  for  two  seasons,  shows  very  dis- 
tinctly the  division  between  the  growth  of  each  year.  This,  how- 
ever, occurs  only  in  those  countries  where  the  winter  and  summer 
climates  differ  considerably,  and  where  the  transition  from  one  to 
the  other  is  sudden.  Where  the  climate  is  nearly  even  throughout 


TYING  FLEECES. 


161 


the  year,  as  ir.  California  or  Australia,  the  fleece  will  continue  to 
grow  on,  without  change.  At  least  this  is  the  case  with  the  Meri- 
no, whose  fleece  has  been  known  to  grow  to  a  length  of  22  inches 
in  a  continuous  period  of  six  years  hi  Australia.  In  California  a 
fleece  was  shorn  in  1874,  which  weighed  52  pounds;  this  was 
doubtless  the  result  of  two  or  three  years'  growth.  The  retention 
of  the  fleece  for  an  indefinite  period  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  Merino, 
which  is  not  known  to  appertain  to  any  other  variety  of  sheep. 

PACKING  THE  FLEECE. — The  manner  in  which  the  fleeces  are 
made  up  has  no  little  influence  upon  the  price  at  which  the  wool 
will  sell.  Wool  buyers  prefer  to  have  the  fleece  loose,  light  to 


£.  56.— TABLE  FOB  TYING  WOOL. 

handle,  and  elastic  ;  and  tied  up  so  that  it  can  be  easily  opened  if 
need  be.  The  method  of  packing  in  Ohio  and  Western  Pennsyl- 
vania, is  to  lay  the  fleece  upon  a  table,  turn  in  the  head  and  tail, 
then  the  flanks,  and  roll  it  up  in  a  neat  roll,  tying  it  with  a  string 
at  each  end.  This  method  is  shown  in  figure  56.  Sometimes  the 
fleece  is  tied  with  one  more  string  across  the  ends,  but  this  is 
rarely  necessary,  excepting  when  the  wool  is  very  short.  A  fleece 
thus  tied  is  light,  easily  handled,  shows  the  quality  of  the  wool, 
and  can  be  felt  all  through.  The  effect  of  the  manner  of  putting 
up  the  fleece  is  seen  in  the  following  quotations  taken  from  the 
wool  market  report  of  Coates  Bros.,  Philadelphia,  of  July  1st,  1875. 


162 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  "W.  Va.  fleece 50c.(_ 

New  York,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin  fleece,  XX..46c.(g 
Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Missouri  fleece,  XX 45c.( 

The  difference  of  4  to  5  cents  per  pound  is  the  value  of  the  extra 
care  in  making  up  the  fleeces.  The  difference  is  even  greater  than 
this,  for  New  York,  Michigan,  andWisconsin  wools  of  better  qual- 
ity than  some  Ohio 
wools,  are  bought 
at  the  regular  rates 
quoted,  simply  be- 
cause the  Ohio 
fleeces  come  to 
market  in  better 
shape.  This  is  no 
unreasonable  dis- 
tinction, as  will  be 
seen  when  the  man- 
ner of  sorting  wool 
is  explained  fur- 
ther on. 

There  are  various 
kinds  of  wool  tables 
for  packing  the 
fleece  other  than 
that  shown  in  figure 
56.  One  hi  common 


Fig.  57. — PLAN  OF  WOOL  TABLE. 


use  in  New  York  is  thus  described  in  the  American  Agriculturist 
of  May,  1872,  with  the  accompanying  engravings,  to  which  the 
letters  refer.  It  is  made  of  three  boards  one  inch  thick,  and 
twelve  inches  wide. 
The  center  one,  fig. 
57,  is  divided  at 
equal  distances  at 
a,  a,  and  connected 
with  hinges  open- 
ing upwards.  The 
two  outside  boards 
are  joined  to  the 
center  square  by 
hinges  at  b,  ft,  5,  b,  Fi^  58--WOOL  TABLE  CLOSED- 

also  opening  upwards.  At  c,  c,  c,  c,  screw  on  the  springs,  cutting 
away  the  wood  underneath  so  that  they  may  lie  flush  with  the 
boards  when  pressed  down.  At  d,  e?,  d,  d,  make  a  cut  one  inch  deep 


PACKING   WOOL. 


163 


with  a  thin  saw,  to  hold  the  ends  of  the  strings.  A  hook  is  made, 
(e,  fig.  58),  of  hard  wood,  one  inch  thick  and  fourteen  inches  be- 
tween the  jaws,  and  the  box  is  done. 

To  use  it,  first  fix  the  strings  from  the  cuts  d,  d,  d,  d,  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  dotted  lines  on  fig.  58.    Lay  the  fleece  with  the 

clipped  side  down- 
wards on  the 
boards,  bring  up 
the  sides,  which 
secure  by  placing 
across  them  the 
hook,  as  in  fig.  58 ; 
then  close  the  ends, 
which  the  springs 
will  keep  in  their 
places ;  tie  the  ends 
of  each  string  tight- 
ly over  the  wool; 
then  remove  the 
hook,  and  the  box 
will  fall  back,  leav- 
ing the  fleece  tight- 
ly packed  and  tied. 
Nothing  should 
be  tied  up  in  the 
fleece,  nor  should 
coarse  twine  nor  too 
much  twine  be  used. 
All  tags  and  waste 
wool  should  be 
scrupulously  kept 
out  of  the  fleece,  as 
it  should  not  only 
look  good,  but 
should  be  good. 
This  observing  of 
little  things  is  one 
of  the  ways  in  which  wool  growing  is  made  a  profitable  business. 
Tag  locks  and  dirty  wool  should  be  washed  in  a  tub  with  soft  soap 
and  cold  water  and  sold  by  itself.  The  soft  soap  tends  to  give  tub- 
washed  wool  a  mellow  handling  free  from  harshness. 

When  the  grower  ships  his  wool  to  a  distant  market,  he  necessa- 
rily packs  the  fleeces  hi  bales.    The  bale  should  be  solidly  packed 


Fig.  59.— PACKING  WOOL. 


164  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL* 

both  for  economy  in  freight,  which  in  light  bulky  articles,  is 
charged  according  to  bulk  and  not  by  weight,  and  for  the  better 
condition  of  the  fleeces  on  their  arrival  at  their  destination.  A 
convenient  method  of  baling  the  fleeces,  is  to  hang  the  sack  from 
a  trap-door  in  the  wool  loft,  as  shown  in  figure  59.  The  fleeces  are 
handed  or  thrown  to  the  packer,  who  places  them  in  the  sack, 
pressing  them  down  close  with  his  bare  feet,  and,  as  he  reaches  the 
top,  with  his  knees  ;  a  handful  of  tags  is  put  in  each  corner  of  the 
sack  and  tied  tightly  to  make  a  handle  by  which  the  package  can 
be  hauled  about  in  its  transportation  to  market.  When  filled,  the 
bale  should  be  plainly  marked  with  the  exact  weight,  tare,  and 
net  weight,  upon  one  of  its  sides. 

SORTING. — When  the  wool  reaches  the  dealer,  it  undergoes  a 
process  of  sorting.  The  same  fleece  contains  wool  of  various  de- 
grees of  fineness,  and  it  must  be  prepared  for  the  manufacturer, 
who  purchases  only  exactly  what  he  needs  for  his  particular  use. 
The  fleece  is  unrolled,  and  the  sorter  selects  the  fine  locks  from 
the  coarse  ones;  the  neck,  shoulder, and  side  wool  from  the  thigj, 
and  haunch  wool ;  and  this  from  the  belly  and  breech  wool.  Each 
fleece  is  sorted  into  from  six  to  ten  different  qualities,  which  are 
selected  by  the  sorter  with  surprising  quickness  and  certainty.  A 
well  rolled  fleece  is  much  more  quickly  handled  than  one  made  up 
disorderly,  and  the  saving  of  the  time  of  a  highly  paid  workman, 
is  of  itself  sufiicient  to  enhance  the  value  of  a  well  packed  fleece 
over  that  of  an  opposite  character  several  cents  a  pound. 

The  final  disposition  of  the  wool,  after  it  has  reached  the  manu- 
facturer, is  not  within  the  limits  of  this  book,  although  the  vari- 
ous processes  of  scouring,  dyeing,  oiling,  plucking,  carding,  comb- 
ing, breaking,  drawing,  roving,  spinning,  reeling,  and  weaving, 
are  all  of  the  greatest  interest  to  the  wool  grower,  as  relating  very 
intimately  to  his  share  of  the  general  industry,  and  showing  how 
far  the  best  management  of  his  flock  goes  to  ease  the  labors,  and 
facilitate  the  operations,  of  the  numerous  artisans  concerned  in  all 
these  various  branches  of  the  manufacture,  and  consequently 
adding  to  the  value  of  his  raw  product.  The  perfection  of  the 
various  processes  cannot  be  better  illustrated  than  by  the  facts 
that  in  only  ordinary  spinning,  a  pound  of  wool  is  made  to  extend 
three-fourths  of  a  mile ;  in  superfine  spinning,  it  stretches  to  a  dis- 
tance of  22  miles;  and  that  the  very  finest  woolen  yarn  hitherto 
spun,  will  reach  a  distance  of  95  miles  for  every  pound.  Fifteen 
hundred  fibers  of  the  finest  wool  laid  side  by  side  will  cover  only 
one  inch  of  space,  and  2,225,000  of  them  placed  compactly  to- 
gether, will  make  a  bundle  only  one  inch  square.  How  much  evil 


WOOL   PRODUCTION   OF  THE   WORLD. 


165 


then  may  the  ignorance  or  carelessness  of  the  shepherd  or  the 
wool-grower,  work  to  the  possible  benefit  to  the  world  through 
this  industry,  by  reducing  the  value  of  a  staple  upon  which  so 
much  of  the  labor  of  mankind  is  expended. 

The  wool  production  of  the  whole  world  is  estimated  by  Mr.  H. 
C.  Carey,  at  1,800,000,000  Ibs.  This  estimate  is  rendered  proba- 
ble by  comparison  with  the  estimates  of  the  production  of  those 
countries  of  which  we  have  more  or  less  accurate  knowledge 
through  official  reports.  An  estimate  of  the  number  of  sheep  and 
pounds  of  wool  produced  in  the  following  countries  in  1866, 
made  by  the  London  Statistical  Society,  and  published  in  their 
journal,  here  reproduced.  To  this  is  added  in  the  last  column 
the  number  of  sheep  mentioned  as  existing  in  those  countries 
in  the  official  reports  ef  their  governments  published  since  that 
date : 

TABLE    OF   SHEEP  AND  WOOL    PRODUCTIONS  OF    THE  FOLLOWING 
COUNTRIES  IN   1866. 


COUNTRIES. 

Millions 
Sheep  and 
Lambs. 

Millions 
Ids.     Wool 
Produced. 

Years. 

Mllions 
Sheep  and 
Lambs. 

Great  Britain  

34.1 
37.4 
1.7 
8.4 
10.0 
45.3 
1.6 
1.7 
1.9 
25.3 
1.0 
0.6 
30.4 
22.1 
11.0 
16.6 
0.4 
2.5 
32.8 

160.0 
152.2 
6.1 
28.8 
38.0 
90.8 
6.1 
6  4 
7.0 
52.1 
6.2 
3.5 
91.2 
74.4 
24.8 
31.1 
1.3 
7.6 
117.6 

1873 
1874 
1874 
1874 
1865 
1863 
1871 
1865 
1871 

1871 
1866 
1872 
1865 
1867 
1871 
1867 
1873 
1874 
1872 
1872 
1863 
1867 
1872 

29.4 
45.0 
1.5 
11.6 
9.8 
45.1 
1.6 
1.7 
1.8 

.8 
.5 
24.0 
22.0 
11.0 
20.0 
0.4 
2.5 
*34.0 
1.5 
.5 
2.0 
.3 
2.4 

Australia                                          

New  Zealand    

Cape  of  Good  Hope       

Russia          

Sweden                     

Denmark                 

Holland                  

Italy                      

Austria,  including  Hungary  
Switzerland  rr.  

Greece                 y     '*•    r             

United  States 

Wurtemberg  ...          ... 

Bavaria       = 

Portugal     

Total 

289.0 
not  include 

964.6 
;d. 

*  Lambs 

It  will  be  noticed  that  this  list  is  unfortunately  very  imperfect, 
and  that  those  countries  only  are  mentioned  whose  product  enters 
into  commerce,  and  which  is  published  in  government  reports,  and 
is  therefore  more  easily  figured  up  by  the  statistician  than  that  of 
such  countries  as  the  states  of  Northern  Africa,  Asia,  and  South 


166 


THE   SHEPHERD'S   MANUAL. 


America.  The  average  weight  of  fleece,  the  relative  value  of  the 
wool  per  pound  (in  American  dollars  and  cents),  and  the  yearly 
income  from  each  sheep,  in  wool,  is  given  in  the  following  table : 

TABLE  OF  THE  PBODUCE  AND  PRICE  OF  WOOL  AND  YEA.RLY 
VALUE  OF  THE  FLEECE  IN  THE  FOLLOWING  COUNTRIES  IN  1866. 


COUNTRIES. 

Pounds 
Wool 

per  SJieep. 

Price  per 
pound    of 
wool. 

Annual 
Revenue 
per  sheep. 

Great  Britain  

4.7 

.25 

1.17 

Australia          

4  1 

37 

1  51 

Tasmania                                      . 

3  5 

38 

1  33 

3  4 

27 

90 

Cape  of  Good  Hope  

3  2 

33 

1  05 

2  0 

21 

42 

3.7 

.19 

.68 

Norway                 •.. 

3  7 

17 

62 

3  7 

23 

85 

2  1 

.41 

85 

Holland               

6  0 

19 

1  14 

6  0 

18 

1  08 

France    

3  0 

.18 

54 

Spain                

3  5 

41 

1  45 

Italy         

2.2 

.21 

.46 

1  9 

38 

72 

Switzerland   

3  0 

18 

54 

3  0 

14 

42 

United  States 

5  4 

40 

2  16 

General  average... 

3.6 

.26 

.94 

The  most  striking  item  in  the  above  comparison  is  the  greatly 
larger  annual  revenue  derived  from  each  sheep  in  America  than 
elsewhere.  When  we  take  into  account  along  with  this,  the  lower 
price  of  our  lands,  the  American  shepherd  will  be  seen  to  have  a 
far  more  profitable  business  than  that  of  any  other  sheep  owner  in 
the  world.  Much  of  this  advantage  is  doubtless  due  to  the  higher 
prices  received  by  the  wool-grower  through  the  operation  of  the 
protective  duties  levied  upon  foreign  wool.  Some  of  it  is  cer- 
tainly due  to  the  greater  weight  of  the  fleece  consequent  upon  the 
improvement  which  has  been  made  in  our  sheep.  With  two  ex- 
ceptions the  average  weight  of  American  fleeces  is  the  highest  in 
the  list.  But  by  far  the  greater  advantage  exists  in  the  higher 
comparative  price  of  wool,  which  is  only  exceeded  very  slightly  in 
two  instances,  those  of  Spain  and  Germany,  and  in  these  countries 
the  bulk  of  the  wool  is  of  the  finer  sorts  which  bear  a  high  market 
value.  The  benefit  accruing  to  wool-growers  by  the  present  tariff 
is  unmistakable,  and  although  this  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  the 
question,  it  continuance  would  certainly  seem  to  be  very  desirable. 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  sheep,  (omitting  lambs), 
enumerated  in  the  decennial  census  reports  of  the  United  States 
for  the  years  named : 


NUMBER  OF  SHEEP  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.        167 


STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 

1870. 
Number. 

241,934 
803 
161,077 
2,768,187 
120,928 
83,884 
1,901 
22,714 
604 
26,599 
419,465 
1,021 
1,568,286 
1,612,680 
855,493 
109,088 
936,765 
118,602 
434,666 
129,697 
73,560 
1,985,906 
132,343 
232,732 
1.352,001 
2,024 
22,725 
11,018 
248,760 
120,067 
619,438 
2,181,578 
463,435 
4,928,635 
318,123 
1,794,301 
23,938 
124,594 
826,783 
714,351 
59,672 
580,347 
370,145 
43,063 
552,327 
1,069,282 
6,409 

1860. 

Number. 

1850. 
Number. 

370,156 

202,753 
1,088,002 

117,107 
193 
18,857 
40 
30,158 
512,618 

769,135 
991,175 
259,041 
17,569 
938,990 
181,253 
452,472 
155,765 
114,829 
1,271,743 
13,044 
352,632 
937,445 

2,355 
376 
310,534 
135,228 
830,116 
2,617,855 
546,749 
3,546,767 
86,052 
1,631.540 
82,624 
233,509 
773,317 
753,363 
37,332 
752,201 
1,043,269 
10.157 
included  witli 
332,954 

371,880 

91,256 

17,574 

174,181 

27,503 
150 
23,311 
560,435 

894,043 
1,122,493 
149,960 

1,102,091 
110,333 
451,577 
177,902 
180,651 
746,435 
80 
304,929 
762,511 

384,756 
160,488 
377.271 
3,453,241 
595,249 
8,948,92-9 
15.382 
1,822,857 
441296 
285,551 
811,591 
100,530 
3,262 
1,014.122 
1,310,004 

Virginia. 
124,896 

Arizona      

Arkansas           

California              

Connecticut  

Dnkota                

District  of  Co  umbia 

Florida                  

Idiho 

Illinois        

Indiana                    ..       

Iowa 

Kentucky                     

Louisiana                                

Maine 

Maryland  ,  

Massachusetts.           

Michigan 

Mississippi     

Nebraska     

New  Mexico            

New  York 

North  Carolina     

Ohio                          .     .           

Rhode  Island       

South  Carolina 

Texas  

Utah            

Virginia            

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin            

Total.. 

28,477,951 

22,471,275 

21,723,220 

The  increase  since  the  last  census,  (1870),  in  the  western  states 
and  territories,  is  very  great.  For  instance,  the  estimated  clip  of 
wool  in  California,  as  reported  by  Messrs.  E.  Grisar  &  Co.,  of  San 
Francisco,  for  the  three  decennial  periods  named,  and  for  1875, 
was  as  follows : 

1854 175,000  Ibs. 

1860 3,055,325    »« 

1870 30,072,660    " 

1875 43,532,323    " 


168  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

"While  some  of  this  very  great  increase  will  result  from  the  rapid 
improvement  in  the  character  of  the  sheep,  yet  there  is  neverthe- 
less reason  to  suppose  that  the  number  of  sheep  in  California  now 
reaches  at  least  5,000,000,  which  is  nearly  double  the  number  of 
1870. 

In  Colorado,  persons  engaged  in  the  sheep  industry,  estimate 
the  flocks  to  amount  to  about  one  million ;  and  in  the  neigh- 
boring territories  of  Dakota,  Wyoming,  New  Mexico,  and  Arizo- 
na, this  industry  has  become  so  wonderfully  developed  during  the 
past  five  years,  that  a  reasonable  estimate  would  give  the  whole 
present  number  of  sheep  pasturing  upon  those  plains  as  at  least 
2,000,000,  where  in  1870  there  were  little  more  than  120,000.  The 
profitable  character  of  the  business  of  rearing  sheep  upon  these 
magnificent  and  costless  pastures,  is  tending  to  still  further  attract 
the  attention  of  stock  men  and  capitalists,  who  are  establishing 
flocks  in  almost  every  available  portion  of  these  territories.  A 
business  in  which  capital  used  with  care  and  skill  returns  a  profit 
of  75  per  cent,  cannot  fail  to  become  developed  with  rapidity  in 
so  favorable  a  locality.  What  the  limit  of  the  productive  capacity 
of  these  broad  pastures  may  be,  it  would  be  hazardous  to  attempt 
to  prognosticate. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE    ANATOMY    OF    THE    SHEEP;     ITS     DISEASES 
AND    THEIR   REMEDIES. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  ITS  ANATOMY. 

The  structure  of  the  sheep  more  nearly  resembles  that  of  the 
ox  than  any  other  of  the  domestic  animals.  It  possesses  a  less 
degree  of  nervous  energy  than  the  horse,  ox, .or  pig,  but  it  is  capa- 
ble of  enduring  greater  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  with  less  incon- 
venience, and  possesses  a  more  vigorous  digestion  than  those  ani- 
mals. The  most  of  its  nervous  energy  is  expended  on  its  diges- 
tive and  assimilative  functions,  and  the  least  proportion  upon  its 
sensitive  and  locomotive  organs.  None  of  our  domestic  animals 
so  completely  digests  coarse  fodder,  or  so  thoroughly  and  profita- 
bly turns  the  most  nutritious  food  into  flesh  and  fat  as  the  sheep. 


THE  BOKES.  1G9 

In  this  respect  it  is  the  most  valuable  and  profitable  feeder  the 
farmer  can  make  use  of ;  at  the  same  tune  no  other  animal  is  so 
feeble  and  defenseless,  nor  so  soon  succumbs  to  disease  of  a  debil- 
itating or  exhausting  character.  Its  circulatory  system  being 
weak,  it  is  on  the  other  hand  comparatively  free  from  inflamma- 
tory diseases,  to  which  the  horse  and  ox  are  especially  subject. 

This  peculiarity  of  the  character  of  the  sheep  may  be  inferred 
from  a  view  of  its  skeleton,  fig.  60,  in  which  the  small  space  occu- 


—  SKELETON  OF  THE  SHEEP. 


pied  by  the  heart  and  lungs,  is  very  marked  in  comparison  with 
the  large  abdominal  space  which  gives  ample  room  for  the  diges- 
tive organs.  The  bones  of  the  sheep  number  226,  including  32 
teeth.  These  bones  are  disposed  as  follows  : 

Vertebral  column  ....................  ..................  43 

Head,  (without  teeth)  .................................  28 

Teeth,  (in  the  adult)  ...................................  32 

Thorax  or  chest  ........................................  27 

Shoulders  ......  .....   .............  ....................    2 

Arms  and  forearms  .....................................    6 

Fore  feet,  (20  in  each)  ..........  ........................  40 

Pelvis  ................................................    2 

Thighs  and  legs  ...................  8 

Hind  feet,  (19  in  each)  .................................  38 

226 

The  structure  of  the  head  of  the  sheep  is  such  as  to  secure  great 
strength.  In  horned  sheep,  the  upper  portion  of  the  skull  is  more 
strongly  built  than  in  the  polled  or  hornless  ones.  This  structure 
is  necessary  to  protect  the  brain  from  the  shocks  consequent  on 
the  mode  of  warfare  of  the  rams,  which  are  pugnacious  annuals. 
8 


170 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


and  especially  of  those  which  are  armed  with  heavy  horns.  The 
skull  consists  of  two  tables  or  plates,  half  an  inch  or  more  apart, 
the  outer  thick  and  tough,  the  inner  hard  and  brittle.  These 
plates  are  connected  by  ridges  of  bone,  which  divide  the  space 
between  them  into  compartments  called  sinuses.  This,  structure 
gives  the  skull  exceeding  strength  and  ability  to  resist  blows  and 
punctures  by  sharp  substances.  The  bones  of  the  head  are  joined 
together  by  sutures  or  dove-tails,  which  are  also  conducive  to  ex- 
treme strength.  In  this  manner  the  brain  is  protected,  and  the 
horns  are  provided  with  a  solid  and  elastic  foundation.  The  form 
of  the  head  is  shown  in  figure  61,  in  which  1  is  the  occipital  bone ; 
2,  parietal  bone ;  3,  core  of  right  frontal 
bone ;  4,  the  left  core  covered  by  its  horn ; 
5,  superciliary  foramen ;  51,  channel  des- 
cending from  it ;  6,  lachrymal  bones ;  7, 
zygoma  ;  8,  nasal  bones ;  9,  supermaxili- 
ary  bones ;  10,  premaxiliary  bones ;  101, 
its  internal  process;  11,  incisive  opening. 
The  cavity  which  contains  the  brain  is 
less  than  a  third  the  size  of  the  rest  of  the 
skull,  the  larger  portion  being  devoted  to 
the  functions  of  eating  and  smelling. 
The  space  devoted  to  mastication  is  large, 
and  the  space  occupied  by  the  nostrils, 
which  are  the  breathing  passages,  rela- 
tively small.  Most  of  the  bones  of  the 
face  are  hollow,  and  are  divided  into  sev- 
eral sinuses  and  cells  by  which  the  head  is  rendered  light  and 
strong.  The  sinuses  and  cells  are  lined  with  membranes  which 
secrete  mucus,  and  are  therefore  called  mucous  membranes.  The 
inner  cavity  of  the  skull  is  lined  with  several  membranes  which 
still  further  add  to  its  strength,  and  to  the  security  of  the  brain. 
The  teeth  of  the  sheep  consist  of  incisors  or  cutters,  and  molars  or 
grinders.  There  are  8  of  the  former,  all  being  upon  the  lower  jaw, 
and  24  of  the  latter.  Upon  the  upper  jaw,  in  place  of  cutting 
teeth,  the  sheep  has,  in  common  with  most  of  the  ruminants,  a 
cartilaginous  plate  or  cushion,  upon  which  the  teeth  of  the  lower 
jaw  impinge  when  the  mouth  is  closed.  The  sheep  has  no  canine 
teeth  or  tusks.  There  is  a  long  space  of  the  jaws  on  each  side  be- 
tween the  incisors  and  molars,  which  is  destitute  of  teeth.  The 
milk  teeth,  or  deciduous  or  temporary  teeth  of  the  sheep,  are 
twenty  in  number;  the  eight  incisors  on  the  lower  jaw,  and  three 
molar  teeth  on  each  side  of  both  jaws  or  twelve  in  all.  The  two 


Fig.  61.— BONES  OF  A 
KAM'S  HEAD. 


THE  TEETH.  171 

central  front  teeth  appear  either  before  or  soon  after  birth,  and  in 
about  three  weeks  after  birth,  the  whole  of  the  twenty  temporary 
teeth  appear.  The  first  change  in  the  teeth  occurs  at  the  age  of 
three  months,  when  the  lamb  cuts  a  permanent  molar  tooth.  The 
next  change,  also  occurs  at  the  back  of  the  mouth,  when  at  nine 
months  old,  another,  the  second  permanent  molar  tooth  appears. 
At  one  year  old  the  lamb  has  but  eight  permanent  teeth,  or  two  at 
the  back  of  each  side  of  each  jaw.  The  age  of  fourteen  months  is 
marked  by  the  appearance  of  two  permanent  incisor  teeth  at  the 
center  of  the  front  of  the  jaw.  In  judging  of  the  age  of  a  sheep, 
the  condition  of  the  molars  may  be  studied  with  advantage.  If  a 
sheep  is  certified  to  be  not  exceeding  one  year  old,  and  the  fifth 
molar,  (the  second  permanent  one,  and  the  last  one  on  each  jaw),  is 
found  to  be  sharp  on  the  edges  and  but  slightly  worn,  the  age  may 
be  regarded  to  be  properly  stated,  even  though  the  central  pair  of 
front  teeth  have  already  appeared.  But  if  these  teeth  are  well  up 
and  the  last  molar  is  ^  orn  and  smooth,  and  there  is  a  space  be- 
tween this  tooth  and  the  angle  of  the  jaw,  the  sheep  is  certainly 
over  a  year  old.  The  sixth  molar  tooth  is  in  its  place  at  the  age 
of  eighteen  months,  and  this  is  the  only  test  of  this  age  of  the 
sheep.  The  second  pair  of  front  teeth,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
first  pair,  appear  at  twenty-one  months  of  age,  and  at  two  years 
are  fully  grown  and  stand  well  up  from  the  gum  and  level  with 
the  first  pair.  After  the  sixth  molar  is  cut,  the  three  forward  and 
temporary  molars  are  replaced  by  permanent  teeth,  which  are 
fully  grown  at  the  age  of  twenty-Seven  months.  At  two  years 
and  a  half  the  third  pair  of  front  teeth  have  become  fully  grown, 
although  in  some  forward  sheep  of  the  quickly  maturing  breeds, 
these  teeth  may  appear  at  two  years  of  age.  Generally  they  indi- 
cate an  age  of  two  years  and  a  half.  At  the  age  of  three  years,  in 
the  Cotswolds  and  other  forward  breeds,  the  fourth  and  last  pair 
of  front  teeth  appear;  but  in  other  breeds  they  are  not  present 
until  three  and  a  quarter  or  three  and  a  half  years.  The  sheep  is 
then  what  is  known  as  "  full  mouthed."  The  following  table  of 
the  periods  of  dentition  will  be  found  useful  in  determining  the 
age  of  a  sheep  : 

At  one  month,  8  temporary  front  teeth  and  three  temporary  molars  on 
each  side  of  each  jaw. 

At  three  months,  a  permanent  molar  is  added  to  these  three. 
At  nine  months,  the  second  permanent  molar  appears. 
At  fourteen  months,  two  permanent  incisors  appear,  (as  a,  a,  fig.  62). 
At  eighteen  months,  the  third  permanent  molar  appears. 
At  twenty-one  months,  there  are  four  permanent  incisors,  (  a,a,  fig.  63). 


172 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MAKUAL. 


At  twenty-seven  months,  the  temporary  molars  are  changed,  and  per- 
manent ones  appear. 

At  thirty  months,  there  are  six  permanent  incisors,  (a,  a,  fig.  64). 

At  thirty-six  to  forty-two  months,  there  are  eight  permanent  inci- 
sors, (a,  a,  fig.  65). 

It  has  been  decided  in  an  English  court  of  law,  that  a  lamb  be- 
comes a  sheep  when  the  first  pair  of  permanent  incisors  have  ap- 


Ct 


Fig.  62.  Fig.  63. 

peared.  When  the  mouth  is  full  toothed,  the  sheep  is  considered 
as  mature,  or  full  grown,  when  the  teeth  begin  to  show  signs  of 
wear,  the  sheep  is  "  aged." 

The  composition  of  the  bones  of  the  sheep  and  of  the  marrow 
con  tamed  in  their  cavities  differs  in  no  respect  from  that  of  the 
bones  and  marrow  of  other  domestic  animals.  Bone  consists  of 
animal  matter  and  earthy  salts  ;  usually  in  the  following  propor- 
tion, viz :  phosphate  of  lime,  55  per  cent ;  carbonate  of  lime,  4  per 
cent ;  phosphate  of  magnesia,  3  per  cent ;  soda,  potash,  and  com- 


Fig,  64. 


Fig.  65. 


mon  salt,  (chloride  of  sodium),  3  per  cent,  and  35  per  cent  of  gela- 
tine. These  proportions  differ  to  some  extent  with  the  kind  of 
bone,  its  solidity,  and  the  age  and  condition  of  the  animal  from 
which  it  is  taken.  The  bones  of  the  skeleton  are  joined  together 
by  means  of  cartilages,  or  ligaments,  which  form  what  are  known 
as  articulations.  Where  the  bones  move  one  upon  another,  their 
ends,  or  the  parts  brought  in  contact,  are  covered  with  cartilage. 
Every  bone  is  enveloped  in  a  highly  sensitive  lining  or  membrane 
called  the  periosteum.  Although  the  bones  seem  to  be  solid  and 
insensible  matter,  chiefly  composed  of  earthy  salts,  yet  they  are 
highly  sensitive,  and  are  formed  of  tissue  which  is  penetrated  by 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF  BONE. 


173 


an  infinite  number  of  minute  canals  known  as  the  Haversian  canals 
which  are  from  y2oo  to  Vasooth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  These  canals 
are  parallel  to  the  length  of  the  bone,  and  frequently  communicate 
together,  forming  an  intricate  net-work,  which  may  be  seen  when 
a  section  of  the  bone  made  lengthwise 
is  highly  magnified,  as  shown  in  figure 
66.  In  a  cross-section  of  the  bone 
these  canals  appear  as  at  fig.  67,  being 
surrounded  by  concentric  layers,  a, 
through  which  radiating  tubes,  5,  of 
the  minutest  size,  penetrate. 

The  periosteum  is  a  highly  vascular 
and  nervous  membrane  which  covers 
the  entire  bone,  except  the  cartilagi- 
nous surfaces  which  move  upon  each 
other  at  the  joints.  It  connects  the 
outer  surface  of  the  bones  with  the 
tendons,  ligaments,  and  muscles. 

The  marrow  is  a  fatty,  pulpy  sub- 
stance, which  fills  the  central  canals 
and  the  spongy  tissue  of  the  bones.  It  is  pink  in  color,  and 
contains  merely  a  trace  of  fat  in  young  animals,  but  as  age  ad- 
vances, it  becomes  yellow  and  less  solid,  and  contains  96  per  cent 
of  fat.  The  bones  are  penetrated  and  lined  within  and  without 
with  numerous  arteries,  veins,  and  nerves.  Some  of  these  arteries 
penetrate  the  bones  by  appropriate  openings,  and  divide  into 
branches  which  form  a  net- 
work that  lines  the  inner 
surface  of  the  bones,  and 
another  that  penetrates  the 
substance  of  the  marrow. 
Other  arteries  penetrate  the 
spongy  portions  of  the 
bones,  and  others  form  a 
net-work  which  belongs  to 
the  periosteum,  and  which 


Fig.  66.— THE  HAVERSIAN 

CANALS. 


O 


Fig.  67.— CROSS-SECTION  OF   BONE. 


enter  the  substance  of  the 

bones    by    means    of    the 

Haversian    canals.     Veins   accompany  these    arteries,  and    are 

very  numerous  where  the  spongy  tissue  is  abundant.    Nerves  are 

abundant  in  the  marrow  and  the  spongy  tissue,  but  few  in  the 

compact  tissue.    Portions  of  the  vertebra  are  remarkable  for  the 

numerous  nerves  they  contain.    By  means  of  the  arteries  and 


174  THE  SHEPHEKD'S  MANUAL. 

veins,  the  bones  receive  nutriment  and  means  of  growth  or  repair, 
and  by  means  of  the  nerves  they  become  sensitive. 

The  skeleton  or  frame  work  is  clothed  with  flesh  or  muscular 
tissue.  The  muscles  consist  of  bundles  of  fibers  which  possess  the 
power  of  contraction  when  excited  by  sensations  communicated 
by  the  nerves.  The  muscles  are  very  diversified  in  shape,  some 
being  spread  out  in  fan  shape,  some  being  thick  and  bulky,  and 
some  long  and  thin.  The  fibers  are  intermingled  with  fat  or  with 
cellular  membrane.  It  is  in  the  abundance  of  the  cells  which  con- 
tain the  fat,  and  in  the  power  to  assimilate  food  to  supply  the  fat, 
that  a  sheep  of  a  good  breed  or  character  is  distinguished  from  one 
of  a  poor  or  bad  character.  The  abundance  of  fat  cells  both  within 
and  upon  the  surface  of  the  muscles  gives  the  soft  mellow  hand- 
ling which  distinguishes  an  excellent  mutton  sheep.  The  muscles 
are  either  directly  connected  by  the  ends  of  their  fibers  to  the  peri- 
osteum or  covering  membrane  of  the  bone,  as  in  the  scapula  or 
shoulder  blade  ;  or  the  ends  are  gathered  together  closely  and  in- 
terlaced with  the  stronger  fibers  of  the  tendons  or  ligaments  which 
are  attached  to  the  bones.  By  the  contraction  of  the  fibers  of  the 
muscles  and  tendons,  the  movements  of  the  joints  are  made.  In 
the  muscular  portions  of  the  sheep  consists  the  whole  value  of  the 
carcass  to  the  butcher,  and  the  whole  art  of  the  breeder  and 
feeder  of  those  heavy-bodied  breeds,  known  as  mutton  sheep, 
is  concentrated  in  the  effort  to  increase  the  muscular  development 
in  those  parts  of  the  carcass,  as  the  loins  and  legs,  the  meat  of 
which  is  most  highly  valued.  The  muscles  are  enclosed  hi  the 
skin  which  forms  the  covering  of  the  animal.  The  protecting  coat 
of  the  animal  grows  upon  the  skin.  This  is  either  hair  or  wool, 
both  being  of  similar  construction  and  composition,  differing  only 
in  form  or  degree  of  fineness  and  texture. 

The  brain  occupies  the  cavity  of  the  skull,  and  is  the  central  seat 
of  sensation  and  intelligence.  From  it  proceeds  the  spinal  marrow, 
which  is  a  continuation  of  the  brain,  and  which  occupies  a  cavity 
through  the  center  of  the  spine  or  backbone,  from  the  head  to  the 
tail.  The  brain  is  largely  supplied  with  blood  by  means  of  the 
carotid  arteries,  and  the  jugular  veins  serve  to  return  the  blood 
from  the  brain  to  the  heart  and  lungs.  In  the  sheep  the  brain  is 
very  small  as  compared  with  the  size  of  the  body,  its  average 
weight  being  but  4£  ounces,  while  that  of  the  dog  is  6|  ounces. 
This  difference  in  the  development  of  brain  reasonably  accounts 
for  the  superior  intelligence  of  the  shepherd  dog,  one  of  which 
easily  controls  and  guides  the  movements  of  a  thousand  sheep. 

The  nerves  proceed  from  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  and  pen) 


THE  VITAL  FUNCTIONS.  175 

trate  in  a  net- work  of  the  most  astonishing  fineness  to  the  remot- 
est portion  of  the  body,  every  portion  of  which,  however  minute, 
being  endowed  by  the  nerves  with  the  faculty  of  sensation.  In 
the  sheep  there  are  forty  pairs  of  nerves,  ten  of  which  proceed 
from  the  brain,  and  thirty  from  the  spinal  cord.  Each  of  these  has 
its  plexus,  or  system  of  branches  and  net-work.  The  nerves  con- 
sist of  bundles  of  white  filaments  or  threads.  The  different  senses, 
sight,  smell,  hearing,  taste,  and  touch,  are  supplied  by  the  nerves, 
which  proceed  directly  from  the  brain.  Another  important  brain 
nerve  is  the  par  vagum,  or  pneumo-gastric  nerve,  which  proceeds 
to  the  heart,  lungs,  stomach,  liver,  and  the  bronchial  or  breathing 
apparatus.  It  is  this  nerve  which  gives  the  breathing,  circulating, 
and  digestive  organs  their  power  of  motion  independent  of  the 
will.  Any  injury  or  disease  of  this  nerve  affects  these  vital  func- 
tions, and  its  division  or  destruction  occasions  instant  death.  The 
spinal  nerves  convey  both  sensation  and  motion.  The  spinal  cord 
of  the  sheep  weighs  one  ounce  and  three-quarters. 

The  vital  functions  of  an  animal  are  respiration,  circulation,  and 
digestion  or  nutrition.  By  the  first  the  system  is  supplied  with 
oxygen,  which  is  one  of  the  sources  of  animal  heat  and  is  the  agent 
by  which  the  blood  is  purified.  By  the  second,  the  tissues  or 
living  structure  of  the  animal  are  supplied  with  nutriment  and 
relieved  from  dead  and  used  up  matter,  and  by  the  last  the  blood 
is  replenished  with  fresh  supplies  of  nutritive  elements. 

Respiration  commences  at  the  moment  of  birth  and  continues  to 
the  moment  of  death.  It  consists  of  an  inspiration  or  in-drawing 
and  an  expiration  or  out-forcing  of  air.  The  motions  necessary 
to  these  alternate  actions  are  made  by  the  diaphragm,  a  membrane 
which  divides  the  chest  from  the  abdomen.  When  this  membrane 
is  relaxed  it  is  convex  or  rounded  towards  the  chest.  "When  its 
fibers  contract,  it  is  straightened  or  flattened,  and  of  course  en- 
larges the  cavity  of  the  chest  and  causes  a  rush  of  air  to  fill  the 
enlarged  space.  This  alternate  contraction  and  relaxing  of  the 
muscles  of  the  diaphragm  cause  the  motion  of  the  chest,  which  is 
observed  in  breathing.  A  corresponding  movement  is  also  made 
in  the  abdomen,  as  may  be  noticed  in  the  flanks  of  hard  driven 
animals.  The  lungs  occupy  the  largest  portion  of  the  cavity  of 
the  chest,  and  enfold  the  heart.  They  are  two  in  number,  the 
left  and  the  right ;  the  left  lung  is  divided  into  two  parts,  called 
lobes ;  the  right  is  divided  into  four  lobes,  of  which  one  is  curved 
around  the  heart.  Fig.  68  shows  this  peculiarity,  1,  1,  being  the 
right  lung ;  2,  2,  the  left :  3,  the  trachea  or  windpipe ;  4,  the  heart ; 
5,  the  carotid  arteries ;  and  6,  the  vena  cava,  or  great  vein  which 


176 


THE  SHEPHESD'S  MANUAL. 


carries  the  blood  which  has  circulated  through  the  body  to  the 
heart,  from  which  it  is  forced  to  the  lungs  for  purification.  The 
lungs  are  composed  of  a  spongy,  highly  elastic  mass  of  cells. 
"When  the  cavity  of  the  chest  is  enlarged  by  the  contraction  of  the 
diaphragm,  this  elastic  mass  swells  and  fills  the  cavity.  The  cells 
enlarge,  and  vacuums  are  formed  in  them  to  fill  which  a  stream  of 
air  is  immediately  directed.  The  air 
rushes  through  the  nostrils  into  the 
trachea  or  windpipe,  and  thence  into 
the  bronchial  tubes,  which  penetrate 
the  mass  of  the  lungs  in  all  direc- 
tions, as  the  branches  and  twigs  of  a 
tree.  By  these  bronchial  tubes,  air 
is  carried  into  every  portion  of  the 
lungs,  where  it  meets  the  blood 
brought  thither  from  every  extremity 
of  the  body  by  means  of  the  vena  cava 
through  the  heart.  In  this  contact 
the  blood,  loaded  with  impurities, 
and  deprived  of  the  oxygen  which 
is  needed  for  the  support  of  the 
body,  parts  with  its  load  of  offensive 
matter,  and  takes  up  from  the  air 
whatever  oxygen  it  requires  to  re- 
store it  to  a  state  of  purity,  and  to 
enable  it  to  fulfill  the  functions  of 
circulation  once  more.  The  air  having  performed  this  office,  is 
expelled  from  the  lungs  by  the  relaxing  of  the  muscles  of  the 
diaphragm,  and  is  expired.  The  expired  air  is  highly  charged 
with  carbonic  acid  and  vapor  of  water,  nearly  the  whole  of  its 
oxygen  having  been  absorbed  by  the  blood.  It  is  also  charged 
with  other  products  of  the  constant  decomposition  or  waste  of  the 
tissues  of  the  body,  or  of  unnecessary  matters  which  have  entered 
the  circulation  through  the  digestive  organs. 

Circulation  consists  in  the  constant  motion  of  the  blood  from 
the  heart  through  the  arteries  to  the  inner  and  outer  surface  of 
the  body,  and  through  every  tissue  of  which  the  body  is  composed ; 
thence  back  by  the  veins  to  the  heart ;  thence  to  the  lungs,  where 
it  is  purified  and  fitted  to  again  serve  for  the  nutrition  of  the  body ; 
it  is  then  sent  from  the  lungs  to  the  heart  to  start  again  upon  its 
round  to  the  extremities. 

The  blood  is  the  most  important  part  in  the  system  of  an  animal. 
It  consists  of  a  white  fluid  colored  red  by  very  small  globules, 


Fig.  68.— THE  LUNGS  EN- 
VELOPING THE  HEART. 


THE  CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD.  177 

called  the  blood  corpuscles.  From  the  blood  the  tissues  of  the 
body  derive  materials  for  their  nutrition,  growth,  or  repair,  and 
for  their  secretions.  The  blood  is  replenished  with  new  matter 
from  the  digestive  organs,  which  dissolve  and  prepare  the  food 
for  this  purpose.  To  carry  on  circulation,  an  apparatus  is  pro- 
vided which  consists  of  the  heart,  the  arteries,  the  capillaries  which 
form  the  connecting  link  between  the  extremities  of  the  smallest 
branches  of  the  arteries  and  those  of  the  veins;  the  veins;  the  ar- 
teries of  the  lungs ;  the  lungs  with  their  capillaries,  and  the  veins  of 
the  lungs.  There  is  thus  a  double  circulation  as  it  were,  which 
may  be  readily  understood  by  a  reference  to  the  diagram,  fig.  69, 

in  which  C  I)  represents 
the  left  auricle  of  the 
heart,  which  forces  the 
blood  through  the  arteries 
E,  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrows  to  the  fine  net- 
work of  the  capillaries; 
then  to  the  veins  F,  and 
Fig.  69.— DIAGRAM  OF  THE  oiEOULATioN.  thence  to  the  right  auricle 

of  the  heart,  A  B.    From 

this  it  is  forced  through  the  right  ventricle  which  opens  from  the 
right  auricle  into  the  pulmonary  artery  G,  still  following  the  course 
indicated  by  the  arrows,  into  the  net-work  of  the  capillaries  of  the 
lungs,  from  which  it  is  conveyed  by  the  pulmonary  vein  Ht  into 
the  left  ventricle,  whence  it  passes  to  the  left  auricle,  on  the  same 
course  over  again.  The  heart  is  a  mass  of  very  strong  muscular 
fiber,  having  the  four  cavities  just  mentioned,  and  being  supplied 
with  valves  which  regulate  the  flow  of  the  blood.  The  muscles  of 
the  heart  contract  and  expand  with  regularity,  performing  what 
we  usually  term  its  "  beats,"  four  times  or  thereabouts  for  every 
inspiration  of  the  lungs.  In  a  young  sheep  the  heart  beats  80  to 
90  times  in  a  minute ;  a  full  grown  one,  70  to  80  times,  and  in  a 
very  old  one,  55  to  60  times.  At  each  contraction  the  blood  is 
forced  through  the  arteries  and  their  branches  to  the  capillaries. 
These  capillaries  are  exceedingly  small,  being  from  y20oo  to  Yseooth 
part  of  an  inch  hi  diameter,  and  inosculate  or  join  together  again 
and  again,  forming  a  net-work  of  the  closest  character,  so  close 
that  the  finest  needle  cannot  penetrate  the  skin  or  membranes  any- 
where without  wounding  one  or  more  of  them,  and  causing  an 
escape  of  blood.  While  circulating  in  this  net- work  of  capillaries, 
the  blood  gives  up  to  the  tissues  amongst  which  it  circulates,  the 
materials  needed  for  their  growth  and  increase,  and  also  to  sup- 


178  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

ply  the  waste  of  matter  caused  by  every  mechanical  movement  of 
the  animal;  for  every  contraction  of  the  fibers  of  the  muscles 
causes  a  decomposition  and  destruction  of  some  portion  of  their 
substance.  Hence  is  explained  the  waste  of  matter  or  loss  of 
weight  caused  by  excessive  exertion  or  insufficient  food.  Here 
the  blood  also  absorbs  the  dead,  used  up  matter  created  by  this  de- 
composition and  destruction  of  tissue,  and  carries  it  off  from  the 
system.  This  it  does  by  means  of  the  skin,  the  kidneys,  and  the 
lungs,  through  which  the  blood  is  filtered  as  it  were  of  matters 
useless  to  the  system  by  means  of  these  capillaries ;  and  the  excre- 
tions of  perspiration  both  sensible  and  insensible,  that  of  the  urine, 
with  some  others,  are  thus  thrown  off.  In  this  manner  the  blood 
becomes  depleted  of  its  nutritive  properties,  and  absorbs  the  wastes 
of  the  system  in  its  intricate  course  through  these  infinitely  small 
capillaries.  It  enters  them  from  the  arteries  a  bright  red,  and 
leaves  them  a  dark,  blackish  purple  fluid.  It  courses  onwards 
through  the  veins  loaded  with  impurities,  to  the  lungs,  which  it 
enters  still  a  dark  fluid ;  here  it  passes  through  a  second  set  of 
capillaries  much  finer  than  the  former,  in  which  it  is  exposed  to 
pure  air  contained  in  the  cells  of  the  lungs ;  the  carbonaceous  mat- 
ters it  contains  come  in  contact  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  are 
decomposed,  burned  in  fact,  giving  forth  the  heat  needed  for  the 
continuance  of  life ;  when  the  blood  thus  rendered  pure,  leaves 
the  lungs  a  bright  red  once  more,  again  fitted  to  fulfill  its  func- 
tions. Before  entering  into  the  lungs,  the  blood  receives  a  new 
supply  of  matter  from  the  lymphatic  vessels,  called  lymph,  which 
is  derived  from  the  digested  food.  The  vessel  which  conveys  the 
lymph  or  chyle,  is  called  the  thoracic  duct,  and  passes  upwards 
into  the  cavity  of  the  chest  in  close  contact  with  the  vertebrae  or 
spine.  The  temperature  of  the  blood  of  the  healthy  sheep  is  100°. 
The  blood  is  now  believed  to  possess  vitality ;  while  its  circulation 
exists  it  is  fluid,  and  when  it  is  dead  it  coagulates.  The  cause  of  the 
coagulation  of  the  blood  is  not  known,  and  there  is  a  difference 
between  its  coagulation  in  and  out  of  the  body.  If  a  part  of  the 
body  be  wounded,  the  blood  which  escapes  from  the  divided  ves- 
sels, coagulates  between  the  edges  of  the  wound,  forms  a  clot  of 
organized  material,  throws  out  new  vessels,  and  gradually  restores 
the  wounded  parts.  It  is  this  coagulating  property  which  saves 
the  life  of  a  wounded  animal  and  directly  leads  to  recovery ;  if 
the  blood  remained  fluid,  the  least  wound  would  cause  a  flow 
which  would  not  stop  until  the  vessels  were  empty  and  the  animal 
dead.  The  constituents  of  the  blood  are  exactly  those  of  flesh. 
Digestion  is  the  process  by  which  food  is  taken  into  the  body, 


DIGESTION.  179 

masticated,  dissolved  by  the  stomach  and  intestines,  and  rendered 
fit  for  absorption  by  the  lacteals  and  lymphatics,  and  assimilation 
by  the  blood.  The  parts  concerned  in  digestion  are  the  lips,  teeth, 
and  tongue,  the  salivary  glands,  the  gullet,  the  stomach,  the  intes- 
tines, the  liver,  the  lacteals,  and  the  thoracic  duct  which  connects 
the  digestive  process  with  the  direct  function  of  circulation  and 
nutrition.  The  lips  are  used  by  the  sheep  in  gathering  its  food, 
very  much  as  they  are  used  by  the  horse,  and  to  a  much  greater  ex- 
tent than  by  the  ox.  The  sheep's  lips  are  thin,  and  very  active  in 
their  movement.  The  upper  lip  is  divided  by  a  groove,  or  fissure, 
so  that  each  half  can  be  moved  independently  of  the  other.  The 
sheep  possesses  no  muffle  or  broad  space  between  the  nostrils  on 
the  upper  lip,  which  in  health  secretes  a  liquid  which  appears  in 
small  drops  upon  its  surface,  as  in  the  ox.  The  teeth  have  been 
already  described.  Their  office  is  well  known.  The  tongue  serves 
to  convey  the  food  to  the  teeth,  and  from  the  teeth  to  the  gullet, 
and  also  the  cud  from  the  gullet  to  the  teeth.  The  salivary  glands 
secrete  a  fluid  which  moistens  the  food  during  mastication,  and 
which  also  possesses  some  of  the  character  of  a  solvent,  or  a  pre- 
paratory digestive  agent,  in  being  able  to  convert  starch  into  solu- 
ble dextrine  and  sugar,  and  thus  prepare  it  for  digestion  by  the 
stomach.  The  glands  are  three  in  number,  and  are  named  the 
parotid,  the  submaxillary,  and  the  sublingual.  The  first  is  situated 
at  the  outside  of  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw ;  the  second  is  placed 
on  the  inside  of  the  lower  jaw,  near  the  angle  ;  and  the  third  is 
beneath  the  tongue.  Ducts  from  these  glands  give  out  the  saliva 
naturally  whenever  the  membranes  of  the  mouth  are  excited  by 
the  presence  of  food ;  or  unduly,  as  in  some  diseases  which  cause 
an  excessive  secretion  of  the  fluid.  The  gullet  conveys  food  or 
drink  from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach.  The  pharynx  is  the  upper 
part  of  the  gullet,  by  which  it  is  connected  with  the  mouth.  It  is 
separated  from  the  larynx,  the  entrance  into  the  windpipe  or  air 
passage,  by  a  cartilaginous  lid  called  the  epiglottis,  which,  when 
food  is  swallowed,  closes  the  larynx  and  allows  the  food  to  slide 
over  it.  The  pharynx,  gullet,  stomach  and  intestines,  together 
form  what  is  termed  the  alimentary  canal.  The  gullet,  also  called 
the  oesophagus,  is  a  very  strong,  muscular  tube,  lined  with  insensi- 
ble white  membrane.  The  fibers  of  the  muscles  run  spirally 
around  the  tube,  in  opposite  directions,  and  thus  cross  each  other. 
By  the  contraction  of  these  muscles,  gradually  extending  down- 
wards, food  is  carried  into  the  stomach  ;  while  by  their  contrac- 
tion in  an  upward  direction,  the  food  is  brought  back  to  the 
mouth  to  be  masticated  the  second  time  in  the  process  of  rumina- 


180 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


Fig.  70. — RIGHT  SIDE  OF  THE 
STOMACH. 


tion.  The  food  taken  up  by  the  lips  and  ^eeth  is  ground  and 
mixed  with  saliva  in  the  mouth,  passed  backwards  by  the  action 
of  the  tongue  to  the  gullet,  and  then  forced  into  the  stomach. 

The  stomach  of  the  sheep  consists  of  a  large  irregular  sac  or  pouch, 
divided  into  four  compartments,  generally  referred  to  as  distinct 
stomachs,  or  the  first,  second,  third, 
and  fourth  stomachs,  (see  figs.  70,  71, 
and  72),  or  the  rumen  or  paunch, 
seen  at  6;  the  reticulurn  or  honey- 
comb, c ;  the  omasum  or  manyplies, 
d-,  and  the  abomasum,  or  rennet,  or 
true  digestive  stomach,  e.  The  gul- 
let is  seen  at  a,  and  the  duodenum  at 
/.  The  functions  of  the  stomachs 
of  the  ruminating  animals  are  known 
only  somewhat  obscurely.  Anatomy 
only  teaches  their  form  and  charac- 
ter, and  leaves  all  the  rest  hi  doubt, 
or  to  be  decided  by  experiment  and 
observation.  From  the  structure  of 
the  stomachs  we  are  able  to  form  a  generally  complete  idea  of  the 
process  of  digestion  which  goes  on  within  them  ;  of  some  of  the 
details  there  is  nothing  certain  as  yet  to  offer.  The  first  two 
stomachs  are  placed  parallel  to  each  other,  and  the  gullet  ends 
almost  equally  in  each,  as  seen  at  a 
in  fig.  72,  which  shows  the  inside 
formation  of  the  stomachs.  The 
second  stomach,  c,  communicates 
with  the  third  by  the  oesophagean 
canal,  g,  which  opens  into  the  third 
stomach,  (not  seen  in  figs.  70  and  71), 
and  ends  there.  The  fourth  stomach 
is  connected  with  the  third  by  a 
distinct  opening.  The  paunch,  &,  is 
the  largest  compartment,  being  four 
times  the  capacity  of  the  other  three 
together.  It  is  divided  into  four  in- 
complete compartments  by  muscular 
walls,  and  is  lined  with  a  membrane  covered  by  a  multitude  of  soft 
pillars  compressed  closely  together,  which  make  an  uneven  surface. 
The  second  stomach,  c,  is  lined  with  cells  having  five  or  six  sides 
from  which  it  takes  the  common  name,  the  honeycomb.  These 
two  compartments,  or  stomachs,  are  in  reality  one,  the  latter  being 


Fig.  71.— LEFT  SIDE  OF  THE 
STOMACH. 


THE  STOMACH.  181 

simply  an  appendage  of  the  former.  The  cesophagean  canal  which 
leads  from  the  second  stomach  to  the  third,  performs  a  very  im- 
portant function  in  the  act  of  rumi- 
nation, or  it  is  supposed  -with  reason 
so  to  do,  as  will  be  explained  further  on. 
The  third  stomach  or  "  manyplies," 
in  the  sheep  the  smallest  of  the  stom- 
achs, is  lined  with  a  number  of  leaves 
or  folds,  placed  lengthwise,  by  which 
the  surface  is  greatly  increased.  The 
fourth  stomach  joins  the  third,  and 
communicates  with  it  by  an  opening 
immediately  opposite  to  the  O3sopha- 
gean  orifice.  The  fourth  stomach  is 
lined  with  a  membrane  which  secretes  Fig.  72.— INTEKIOR  OF  THE 
the  gastric  juice,  the  true  digestive  STOMACH. 

solvent.    It  opens  directly  into  the  duodenum  or  small  intestine. 

Rumination,  or  chewing  the  cud,  is  a  process  which  distinguishes 
a  class  of  animals,  known  as  ruminants,  from  all  others.  For  the 
performance  of  this  process  the  complicated  stomach  above  de- 
scribed is  provided.  To  understand  this  important  alimentary 
process,  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  first,  into  which  of  the  stom- 
achs the  food  passes  after  its  first  mastication ;  second,  in  what 
manner  and  by  what  process  the  food  is  rejected  by  these  stom- 
achs and  returned  to  the  mouth  for  a  second  mastication  ;  third, 
to  which  of  the  stomachs  is  the  food  finally  transmitted  for  com- 
plete digestion. 

Some  careful  experiments,  by  the  French  physiologist,  Flourens, 
have  to  a  great  extent  determined  these  questions  ;  and  the  com- 
parative anatomist,  Chauveau,  has  summed  up  the  functions  of  the 
stomachs  of  ruminants  as  ascertained  from  every  modern  source 
of  information  as  follows  : 

1st.  The  rumen  is  a  sac  in  which  the  food  swallowed  during 
feeding  time  is  held  in  reserve,  and  is  softened,  and  whence  it  is 
ed  to  the  mouth  during  rumination. 

The  reticulum  partakes  of  the  functions  of  the  rumen,  to 
•which  it\)lays  the  part  of  an  accessory  or  reservoir ;  the  food  con- 
tained hi  it  being  always  diluted  by  a  larger  quantitjr  of  water. 

3rd.  The  czsophagean  canal  carries  into  the  omasum  the  food 
swallowed  the  second  time,  or  after  rumination,  or  even  those  por- 
tions of  food  which  the  animal  swallows  in  wry  small  quantity  and 
in  a  finely  divided  or  softened  condition  the  first  time. 


182  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

4th.  The  omasum  completes  the  maceration  or  reduction  of  the 
food  to  a  sufficiently  fine  condition  for  digestion,  by  pressing  it 
between  its  leaves. 

5th.  The  abomasum  is  the  true  digestive  stomach,  and  finally 
dissolves  the  food  by  its  gastric  secretion. 

In  these  processes  the  cesophagean  canal  performs  a  peculiar  func- 
tion. The  ordinary  food  of  the  ruminating  animal  is  coarse  in 
texture,  aud  when  swallowed  is  bulky.  When  it  enters  into  the 
stomach  and  meets  the  opening  of  the  oesophagean  canal,  it  forces 
open,  by  its  bulk,  the  muscular  lips  of  which  the  opening  is  com- 
posed, and  drops  partly  into  the  first,  and  partly  into  the  second 
stomach.  M.  Flourens  has  satisfied  himself,  by  careful  experi- 
ments upon  a  living  sheep,  that  when  the  animal  ruminates,  a  por- 
tion of  the  food  swallowed  previously  and  now  contained  in  the 
first  and  second  stomachs — which  are  really  one— is  forced  by  a 
contraction  of  the  stomach  into  the  oesophagean  canal,  and  this  then 
contracting,  closes  all  the  other  openings  except  that  of  the  gullet, 
and  at  the  same  time  compresses  the  morsel  of  food  into  a  pellet  or 
ball,  which  is  immediately  forced  by  the  upward  muscular  con- 
traction of  the  gullet  into  the  mouth.  When  it  has  been  chewed 
and  mingled  with  the  copious  secretion  of  saliva  which  takes  place 
during  rumination,  it  is  again  swallowed.  Being  now  softened 
and  in  a  semi-liquid  condition,  it  passes  over  the  lips  of  the  open- 
ing of  the  canal,  without  forcing  them  apart,  into  the  second 
stomach,  and  enters  the  third  stomach ;  a  small  portion  of  it  only 
escaping  into  the  first  and  second  stomachs.  When  fine  or  semi- 
liquid  food  is  first  swallowed,  it  follows  exactly  the  same  course, 
the  same  being  true  of  water  when  drank.  From  the  third  stom- 
ach the  food  passes  on  to  the  fourth  stomach  to  be  finally  disposed 
of.  It  has  been  found  that  the  pellets  of  food,  returned  to  the 
mouth  for  rumination,  are  of  the  precise  size,  shape,  and  form  of 
the  portion  of  the  oesophagean  canal  between  the  first  and  third 
stomachs.  Sheep  have  been  dissected  with  these  pellets  ready 
formed  in  the  canal  for  transmission  to  the  mouth. 

The  intestines  of  the  sheep  are  of  great  length,  being  twenty- 
eight  times  longer  than  its  body.  In  the  duodenum,  which  is  the 
upper  portion  of  the  intestines  that  directly  communicates  with 
the  lower  orifice  of  the  stomach,  the  partially  digested  mass  of 
food  undergoes  still  further  changes.  As  it  passes  from  the  stom- 
ach it  is  termed  chyme.  In  the  duodenum  the  chyme  is  mingled 
with  the  bile,  which  comes  from  the  liver,  and  the  pancreatic  juice, 
a  secretion  of  the  pancreas,  or  "  sweet-bread,"  and  becomes  fitted 


THE  LIVER.  183 

for  absorption  by  the  lacteals  which  communicate  with  the  intes- 
tines. It  is  now  termed  chyle,  and  is  a  white  milky  fluid  which 
enters  the  thoracic  duct  and  mingles  with  the  blood  as  previously 
described.  The  refuse  and  insoluble  portion  of  the  food,  with  un- 
used portions  of  the  bile  pass  on  through  the  lower  intestines,  and 
is  discharged  by  the  rectum  as  dung. 

The  liver  is  a  large  organ  with  the  appearance  of  which  almost 
every  person  is  familiar.    It  is  called  a  gland,  because  its  office  is 
to  secrete  a  fluid  which  is  peculiar  to  it,  and  it  is  the  largest  gland 
in  the  body.    Its  secretion  is  called  the  bile.    Its  position  in  the 
body  is  below  the  diaphragm  and  adjacent  to  the  stomachs,  with 
the  third  of  which  it  is  in  direct  contact.     It  is  enveloped  in  the 
peritoneum  or  membrane  which  covers  and  also  encloses  the  whole 
of  the  contents  of  the  abdomen,  and  forms  as  it  were  a  sac  or  bag, 
one-half  of  which  is  doubled  into  the  other  half.    The  liver  hi  sub- 
stance is  granular,  consisting  of  grains,  or  lobules,  from  one-tenth 
to  one-twentieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.    Its  color  is  reddish 
brown.    The  lobules  of  which  it  is  composed  are  closely  packed, 
and  are  held  together  by  fine  tissue  and  a  net-work  of  minute 
veins  and  ducts.     Each  lobule  is  connected  with  a  blood  vessel  at 
its  base,  and  another  vessel  comes  from  the  center  of  the  lobule 
and  joins  the  former  one  at  its  base.     Between  these  two  is  an 
exceedingly  fine  net-work  of  capillary  vessels  similar  to  those  pre- 
viously described.    By  means  of  arteries  and  veins  called  portal 
canals,  which  enter  and  ramify  through  the  substance  of  the  liver, 
the  blood  is  carried  into  and  through  the  substance  of  each  lobule 
in  streams  of  exceeding  fineness.    From  the  blood  thus  passing 
through  the  lobules,  the  gall  or  bile  is  secreted  by  small  cells  not  ex- 
ceeding Vioooth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  is  collected  into  minute 
vessels  called  biliary  ducts,  from  which  it  is  gathered  into  larger 
ducts,  which  pour  their  contents  into  the  great  bile  ducts.    There  is 
a  receptacle  in  the  liver  of  the  sheep  known  as  the  gall-bladder,  to 
which  the  gall  is  carried  from  the  hepatic  duct  by  another  duct 
named  the  cystic  duct.    When  the  gall  contained  in  the  gall-blad- 
der is  required  for  use,  it  returns  by  the  same  duct  into  the  hepatic 
duct,  and  thence  into  the  great  bile  duct  which  ends  in  the  duo- 
denum, below  the  stomach. 

The  gall  is  an  alkaline  fluid  of  composite  character,  containing 
soda,  two  peculiar  acids,  (glycocholic  and  taurocholic,  the  latter  of 
which  contains  sulphur) ;  mucus ;  cholesterine ;  stearic,  oleic,  and 
lactic  acids,  with  potash  and  ammonia,  and  a  peculiar  coloring 
matter.  It  is  in  fact  a  sort  of  liquid  soap.  The  bile  is  poured 
into  the  duodenum  by  the  great  bile  duct.  Near  this  duct  is 


18-4  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

another  from  which  flows  the  secretion  of  the  pancreas  or 
sweet-bread.  This  fluid  is  slightly  alkaline  and  very  similar  to 
the  saliva.  Its  office  is  supposed  to  be  to  change  the  un dissolved 
starch  in  the  chyme  into  sugar,  and  to  form  an  emulsion  with  the 
oil  or  fat  of  the  food,  and  prepare  it  for  absorption  directly  into 
the  blood  or  into  the  lacteals.  The  office  of  the  gall  is  to  neutral- 
ize the  acidity  of  the  chyme  derived  from  the  gastric  juice,  which 
is  an  acid  fluid,  to  assist  in  the  transformation  of  starch  into  su- 
gar, and  the  absorption  of  oil  or  fat.  It  is  the  chief  agent  in 
changing  the  chyme  of  the  stomach  into  the  chyle,  which  is  the 
perfected  source  of  nutrition  of  the  blood.  The  perfect  action  of 
the  liver  is  therefore  absolutely  necessary  to  the  sustenance  and 
the  life  of  the  animal.  The  quantity  of  gall  secreted  by  the  liver 
of  the  sheep  every  twenty-four  hours  is  from  3  to  5  pounds.  The 
whole  of  this,  however,  is  not  destroyed  in  the  performance  of  its 
office,  but  a  large  portion  is  taken  into  the  system  in  the  circula- 
tion, the  surplus  being  regained  from  the  blood  by  the  secreting 
cells  of  the  liver  and  again  returned  for  duty  to  the  intestines. 
Another  office  of  the  liver  is  to  prepare  crude  albuminous  matter 
of  the  blood  for  final  absorption  into  it.  It  is  also  able  to  form 
sugar  from  other  carbonaceous  matters  conveyed  to  it  in  the  chyle 
absorbed  by  the  lacteal  vessels.  Thus  the  liver  acts  as  a  filter,  in 
separating  detrimental  matters  from  the  blood,  besides  supplying 
a  necessary  agent  in  digestion,  as  well  as  for  respiration.  Its  im- 
portance in  the  animal  functions  cannot  be  over-estimated. 

The  lacteals  are  a  series  of  small  absorbent  vessels  which  form  a 
net-work  in  connection  with  the  coats  of  the  intestines,  and  pro- 
ceed to  the  thoracic  duct,  where  they  terminate.  They  exist  much 
more  numerously  in  connection  with  the  small  intestines  than 
with  the  lower  ones.  Their  chief  seat  is  the  mesentery,  which  is 
the  thin  membrane  which  supports  the  small  intestines.  The  lac- 
teals enter  the  numerous  glands  of  the  mesentery,  and  pass 
through  them,  uniting  to  form  larger  vessels  and  becoming  fewer 
and  fewer  in  number,  being  finally  reduced  to  two  or  three  ducts 
which  end  in  the  thoracic  duct.  The  lacteals  absorb  the  chyle, 
which  is  presented  to  them  in  the  intestines,  convey  it  to  the  glands 
In  which  it  is  enriched  and  perfected,  and  thence  convey  it  to 
the  vessels  which  terminate  in  the  duct  from  which  the  new  nutri- 
tive matter  is  poured  into  the  large  vein  near  its  junction  with  the 
heart,  to  enter  into  the  circulation. 

The  chyle  is  very  similar  in  its  composition  to  the  blood,  differ- 
ing from  it  chiefly  in  the  absence  of  coloring  matter,  or  the  red 
globules  which  give  the  color  to  the  blood.  It  coagulates  on 


THE  EXCBETORY   ORGAN'S.  185 

being  allowed  to  rest,  although  the  clot  is  softer  than  that  of  the 
blood. 

The  thoracic  duct  extends  from  the  loins  to  the  neck,  and  its 
course  is  along  the  spine.  It  is  the  principal  trunk  of  the  absorb- 
ent system,  and,  as  has  been  explained,  is  the  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  digestive  organs  and  the  circulatory  system,  as  the  pul- 
monary artery  and  vein  is  the  connecting  link  between  the  circu- 
latory and  respiratory  system. 

2Jie  spleenis  another  organ  which  is  very  important,  as  being  the 
seat  of  a  rather  obscurely  understood  disease,  known  as  splenic 
apoplexy.  It  consists  of  a  spongy  mass  of  tissue  of  a  mottled  blue 
or  purplish  gray  color.  It  is  suspended  near  the  great  curvature 
of  the  stomach,  but  of  its  functions  nothing  is  precisely  known. 
It  is  supposed  to  act  as  a  reservoir  of  blood  for  the  portal  vein ;  it 
is  also  supposed  to  destroy  the  red  globules  of  the  blood,  as  it 
has  been  discovered  to  contain  blood  globules  in  a  state  of  decom- 
position. It  is,  however,  known  that,  in  the  course  of  researches 
to  discover  the  uses  of  this  gland,  animals  from  which  it  has  been 
removed  have  recovered  from  the  operation,  and  have  continued 
to  live  in  apparent  good  health.  The  fact  of  its  engorgement 
with  blood  in  the  disease  of  ruminants  known  as  splenic  fever  or 
apoplexy,  and  its  increase  of  volume  in  certain  bilious  disorders, 
would  tend  to  show  that  its  functions  are  in  some  way  closely 
connected  with  the  circulation,  and  perhaps  with  the  digestive 
processes  and  nutrition. 

The  Urinary  or  Excretory  Organs. — The  urine  is  separated  from 
the  arterial  blood  by  the  kidneys.  These  organs,  with  the  liver 
and  the  lungs,  are  employed  in  the  purification  of  the  blood.  The 
liver  separates  compounds  abounding  in  hydrogen,  the  lungs  those 
which  abound  in  carbon,  and  the  kidneys  those  abounding  in  ni- 
trogen. The  nitrogen  eliminated  through  the  kidneys  exists  in 
the  form  of  urea,  a  crystalline  substance  which  readily  decomposes 
and  gives  off  its  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  ammonia.  There  are  two 
kidneys,  one  each  side  of  the  spinal  column.  The  kidneys  are 
attached  firmly  to  the  loins ;  in  the  sheep  they  are  shaped  like  a 
bean,  and  are  imbedded  in  fat.  They  perform  a  double  office,  or 
two  separate  functions,  one  being  to  discharge  from  the  blood  any 
excess  of  water  that  may  accumulate  in  it ;  the  other  being  to  rid 
the  blood  of  excess  of  saline  matter  and  the  products  that  result 
from  the  waste  of  the  tissues.  The  blood  enters  the  kidneys  by 
arteries,  and  the  urine,  separated  as  by  a  filter,  through  a  very  com- 
plex system  of  capillaries,  flows  into  two  white  ducts  termed  ure- 
ters, which  pass  it  onwards  to  the  bladder.  The  urine  of  the 


186  THE  SHEPHERD'S  HAKUAL. 

sheep  is  not  so  copious  as  that  of  the  cow  in  proportion  to  its  size, 
but  possesses  a  larger  proportion  of  salts.  The  following  is  an 
analysis  of  sheep's  urine : 

Water 96.0  per  cent. 

Urea  with  some  albuminoids  and  coloring  matter  2.8  "      " 
Salts  of  potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  silica,  iron, 
alumina,  and  manganese T  . .  1.2  "      " 

100.00      " 

In  fig.  73  is  shown  a  section  of  the  substance  of  the  kidney 
highly  magnified,  in  which  appear  the  uriniferous,  (urine  carrying) 
ducts  or  tubes,  (a,  a),  surrounded  by  the  secreting  glandular  sub- 
stance, (&,  &),  which  is  enclosed  in  the  net-work  of  the  arteries, 
(c,  c),  and  the  fibrous  tissue,  (tf,  d). 

The  bladder  is  situated  hi  the  pelvic  cavity,  or  the  lower  part  of 
the  abdomen.  It  is  composed  of  two  coats,  the  outer  one  being 
muscular,  and  capable  of  contracting  so  as  to  expel  its  contents. 
One  half  is  enveloped  in  a  third  coat,  and  the  other  half  in  the 
/,  tissue  of  the  pelvic 

0         .  n  «••'••- 

region,  and  masses  of 
fatty  matter.  The  mus- 
cular coat  consists  of 
fibers  Placed  in  various 
directions,  lengthwise, 
crosswise,  oblique,  and 
spiral,  so  that  in  the  act 
of  contraction  the  blad- 
der is  reduced  in  size 
Fig.  73.— STBUCTUBB  OF  THE  KIDNEY.  evenly  and  in  every 

direction.  A  strong  muscle  encircles  the  opening,  from  which  the 
urine  is  discharged,  and  which  is  called  the  neck  of  the  bladder.  The 
contraction  of  this  muscle  closes  the  neck  and  retains  the  contents, 
its  relaxation  opens  the  orifice  and  Callows  the  contents  to  be  ex- 
pelled. From  the  neck  of  the  bladder  proceeds  the  urethra,  by 
which  the  urine  is  discharged.  In  the  ewe  the  urethra  is  very 
short,  in  the  ram  it  is  much  longer,  and  passes  down  from  the 
anus  along  the  abdomen  to  the  extremity  of  the  penis.  The  func- 
tions of  the  bladder  are  very  important.  It  serves  as  a  reservoir 
for  the  urinal  fluid  which  is  constantly  secreted  by  the  kidneys 
and  retains  it  until  a  considerable  quantity  has  been  accumulated, 
and  thus  spares  the  animal  from  otherwise  continually  dribbling 
away  the  urine  as  it  is  secreted. 

The  Eeproductive  Organs. — These  are  entirely  different  in  the 


THE   REPRODUCTIVE  ORGANS.  187 

male  and  female.  The  female  organs  are  more  abundantly  devel- 
oped than  those  of  the  male,  and  have  more  intricate  functions  to 
fulfill.  They  consist  of  two  secreting  organs  called  ovaries,  which 
are  charged  with  the  elaboration  of  the  ovum  or  egg ;  the  uterine 
tube  through  which  the  ovum  passes  on  leaving  the  ovary; 
the  uterus  or  womb  in  which  it  rests  after  its  impregnation, 
and  in  which  it  remains  until  it  is  fully  developed ;  and  the 
vagina  or  canal  through  which  the  foetus  or  young  animal  when 
perfected  is  discharged.  In  addition  there  are  two  mammas  or 
milk-producing  glands  enclosed  in  the  skin,  and  attached  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  abdomen  and  inner  parts  of  the  thighs,  each  of 
which  has  a  set  of  secreting  glands  and  milk  ducts  flowing  into 
a  tube  which  has  its  orifice  in  the  teat.  These  milk  glands  are 
called  the  udder.  The  ovum  is  a  cell  about  Viooth  of  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter, which  is  contained  in  another  cell  or  ovisac,  of  which  the 
ovaries  contain  a  certain  number.  At  stated  periods  called  the 
oestrum  or  condition  of  "  heat,"  the  ovaries  become  excited  and 
distended,  and  discharge  one  (or  more)  of  these  ovisacs,  which,  par- 
taking of  the  condition  of  the  ovaries,  becomes  distended  and  bursts, 
releasing  the  ovum,  which,  when  it  is  brought  into  contact  with 
the  impregnating  fluid  of  the  male  in  the  uterine  tube,  undergoes 
a  change,  enters  into  the  uterus,  and  hi  course  of  time  becomes  a 
living  animal.  When  the  female  is  not  brought  into  connection 
with  the  male  at  the  season  of  heat,  the  ovum  undergoes  no  change, 
but  passes  on  to  the  uterus,  where  it  is  absorbed.  The  impregna- 
ted ovum,  when  it  reaches  the  uterus,  becomes  grafted  upon  its 
lining  membrane  and  draws  directly  from  the  mother's  blood  the 
materials  for  its  development. 

In  the  male  the  reproductive  organs  consist  of  two  glands,  which 
in  the  ram  are  suspended  in  a  sac  between  the  thighs.  This  sac  is 
called  the  scrotum.  The  glands,  called  the  testicles  or  testes,  are 
each  enclosed  in  four  envelopes,  being  separate  and  distinct  from 
each  other.  One  of  these  envelopes  is  a  portion  of  the  peritoneum 
or  lining  of  the  abdomen,  which  descends  through  an  opening  in 
the  abdomen.  This  opening  remains  afterwards,  and  it  is  thus 
that  in  castrating  the  ram,  the  inflammation  which  often  takes 
place,  spreads  into  the  abdomen  and  destroys  the  animal.  The 
glands  are  oval  in  shape,  and  consist  of  a  grayish  pulp.  They  are 
attached  to  the  spermatic  cord  and  artery,  and  their  function  is  to 
secrete  the  spermatic  or  impregnating  fluid,  which  is  alkaline,  and 
contains  minute  filaments  not  larger  than  YBOOO  to  Vsoooth  of  an  inch 
in  length.  These  filaments  possess  the  power  of  independent 
movement  for  some  days  after  their  expulsion  from  the  organs  of 


188  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

the  male.  A  canal  or  duct  called  the  'Das  deferens,  leads  from  the 
testes  to  the  outward  and  exposed  male  organ.  In  the  ram  this 
organ  has  at  its  extremity  a  small  spiral  appendage  called  the 
vermiform,  (or  worm-like),  appendage.  This  has  a  very  narrow 
orifice,  and  is  often  on  this  account  the  seat  of  obstructions  which 
are  difficult  to  remove. 

The  testicles  of  the  ram  are  very  large  in  proportion  to  its  size, 
and  the  whole  reproductive  powers  are  highly  vigorous,  enabling 
him,  when  well  nourished,  to  serve  effectively  a  hundred  ewes  in 
a  season. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON   THE    DISEASES  OF   THE   SHEEP. 

In  judging  of  the  symptoms  of  disease  in  the  sheep,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  take  into  account  the  nature,  constitution,  and  habits  of 
this  animal.  The  diseases  of  the  sheep  are  numerous  and  more 
generally  fatal  than  those  of  other  domestic  animals.  The  diges- 
tive organs  of  the  sheep  are  largely  and  powerfully  developed,  and 
its  capacity  for  the  production  of  blood  is  very  great.  Yet  its 
needs  for  this  large  supply  of  blood  is  not  to  support  its  nervous 
system,  which  is  feebly  developed,  nor  its  muscular  exertion,  of 
which  it  is  incapable  to  any  great  extent,  nor  its  circulation,  which 
is  onty  of  inferior  amount,  but  the  surplus  must  necessarily  go  to 
the  production  of  flesh,  fat,  and  wool.  In  the  sheep,  therefore, 
the  production  of  flesh,  fat,  and  wool,  is  the  chief  of  its  functions, 
and  the  greater  part  of  its  vitality  is  expended  in  this  way,  leaving 
but  a  small  amount  to  sustain  the  comparatively  weak  vascular 
system.  The  sheep  is  unable  to  sustain  severe  muscular  labor ;  and 
slow  movement,  except  for  very  limited  periods,  is  all  that  it  is 
capable  of.  From  the  small  brain  development  of  the  sheep,  its 
weak  nervous  and  circulating  system,  it  is  to  a  great  extent  free  from 
diseases  of  an  inflammatory  character.  From  the  large  exercise 
of  its  digestive  powers,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  diseases  of  the  di- 
gestive organs  should  be  frequent  and  serious,  and  this  we  find 
to  be  the  case.  From  the  same  causes  that  render  it  compara- 
tively free  from  diseases  of  an  irritating  character,  it  with  more 
than  usual  readiness  succumbs  to  those  in  which  debility  and  the 
exhaustive  effects  of  parasites  are  the  chief  features.  Indeed  it  is 
to  the  attacks  of  parasites,  both  external  and  internal,  that  sheep 
owe  their  most  troublesome  and  fatal  disorders.  Infectious  or 
contagious  diseases  have  greater  scope  for  action  amongst  sheep 
than  amongst  other  domestic  animals,  by  reason  of  their  gathering 
together  in  large  flocks,  and  thus  being  more  exposed  to  unwhole- 


THE  DISEASES   OF  SHEEP.  189 

some  influences  than  those  animals  which  are  usually  kept  singly, 
or  which  when  kept  in  large  numbers,  naturally  break  up  into 
small  separate  herds.  The  structure  of  the  foot,  and  the  manner 
of  the  growth  of  the  crust  and  sole  are  such  as  to  subject  it  to  dis- 
ease in  that  organ  from  which  other  animals  are  free.  In  the 
management  of  a  flock  of  sheep,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  the 
peculiarities  and  habits,  so  that  the  watchful  care  of  the  shepherd 
may  be  given  as  far  as  possible  to  exercise  precautions  which  may 
prevent  disease.  Fortunately  our  climate  is  so  well  adapted  to 
these  peculiarities  and  habits,  that  our  flocks  suffer  from  far  fewer 
diseases  than  those  of  other  less  favorable  climates,  and  at  present 
many  diseases  prevalent  in  other  countries  are  unknown  to  us  ex- 
cept by  report.  Precautions  to  be  effective  must  be  intelligently 
exercised,  and  it  is  only  by  thoroughly  understanding  his  flock 
that  the  shepherd  can  know  what  to  avoid  and  what  to  do.  The 
symptoms  which  indicate  approaching  disease  should  be  instantly 
recognized,  or  the  threatened  danger  cannot  be  averted.  Then  the 
timely  remedy  may  be  employed,  which  is  rarely  ineffective,  while 
that  which  comes  later  is  rarely  serviceable  or  effective.  The 
remedies  to  be  administered  must  be  consistent  with  the  peculiar- 
ities of  the  sheep.  Possessing  but  a  weak  vascular  and  nervous 
system,  and  a  small  supply  of  circulating  blood,  bleeding  is  rarely 
called  for,  and  can  be  employed  only  with  danger  of  doing  harm 
in  place  of  good.  For  the  same  reason  tonic  and  stimulating  med- 
icines are  more  frequently  needed,  and  may  be  given  in  larger 
doses.  Purgatives,  especially  saline  ones,  for  the  same  reason, 
always  demand  an  accompanying:  stimulant. 

Purgatives  are  frequently  called  for,  as  the  digestive  organs 
so  abundantly  developed  and  largely  exercised,  are  readily  dis- 
eased or  disordered,  and  disturbance  of  the  system  rarely  occurs 
without  sympathetically  or  otherwise  involving  those  organs. 
The  veterinarian  used  to  study  the  diseases  of  the  horse,  and  to 
apply  his  reasoning  to  the  peculiarities  of  that  animal,  is  too  apt  to 
lose  sight  of  the  vast  surface  of  the  stomachs  of  the  sheep,  the  in- 
sensibility of  much  of  this  surface,  and  the  fact  that  medicine  ad- 
ministered with  the  food  or  in  solid  form,  will  most  probably  fall 
into  the  rumen,  where  it  will  be  ineffective.  So  too  the  shepherd, 
who  consults  veterinary  works,  will  be  misled  to  a  great  extent, 
and  be  induced  to  believe  the  too  common  idea  that  it  is  folly  to 
physic  a  sheep,  and  the  best  treatment  is  to  cut  its  throat  at  once. 
In  treating  sheep,  purgatives  are  useful  to  reduce  fever,  to  lower 
inflammation,  and  to  restore  tone  to  the  stomach  and  liver.  They 
should  always  be  given  in  a  liquid  form.  Of  all  the  purgatives, 


190  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

Epsom  Salts  and  Linseed  Oil  (always  raw)  are  the  most  suitable 
and  effective.  The  action  of  stimulants  given  along  with  a  purga- 
tive is  always  beneficial. 

Stimulants,  of  which  Ginger,  Gentian,  Aniseed,  and  Pepper- 
mint-oil are  the  most  usual  and  useful,  restore  the  tone  of  the 
stomachs  and  excite  them  to  action,  thus  aiding  hi  the  operation  of 
the  purgative,  which  might  otherwise  still  further  enfeeble  them. 

Bleeding,  when  it  is  necessary  in  the  outset  of  inflammatory  dis- 
orders or  local  excitements,  should  be  performed  by  operating  on 
the  veins  under  the  eye  (see  fig.  76)  or  the  ear ;  the  inside  of  the 
fore  arm  is  a  convenient  place ;  when  a  large  quantity  is  to  be 
taken,  the  jugular  vein  of  the  neck  may  be  opened  by  first  cut- 
ting off  some  of  the  wool,  pressing  the  vein  with  the  finger,  and 
cutting  it  lengthwise — never  crosswise — with  a  sharp  lancet.  Never 
less  than  two  ounces  or  a  wine-glassf  ul  should  be  taken,  and  rarely 
more  than  half  a  pint. 

In  referring  to  the  diseases  hereinafter  treated  of,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  causes  to  which  they  may  generally  be  attributed, 
with  the  means  of  prevention,  will  be  given.  The  remedies  men- 
tioned will  be  those  to  be  given  to  a  full-grown  animal,  for  lambs, 
one-half  or  less  of  the  doses  should  be  given,  and  for  very  young 
lambs,  still  less  should  be  given. 

The  most  prolific  causes  of  disease  are  over-feeding,  under-feed- 
ing, irregularity  of  feeding,  want  of  water,  drinking  impure  water, 
impure  air,  damp,  and  over-driving.  If  these  were  avoided  there 
would  be  but  little  complaint  of  the  frequent  troubles,  difficulties, 
and  losses  in  keeping  sheep.  While  they  exist,  medicine,  at  the 
best,  is  but  a  temporary  expedient,  effective  only  during  the  time 
in  which  extra  care  is  used.  When  this  care  is  allowed  to  relapse 
the  trouble  will  infallibly  recur. 

CAUSES,    PREVENTION,  AND    TREATMENT,    OF   DISEASES 
COMMON   TO  SHEEP. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS. 

Catarrh  is  very  common  during  the  fall,  winter,  and  spring.  It 
will  be  found  on  close  observation  to  be  rarely  absent  in  any  flock. 
In  our  diy  climate,  subject,  however,  to  sudden  changes  of  temper- 
ature, catarrh,  or  cold,  is  mostly  due  to  exposure  to  damp  hi  open 
yards,  or  to  too  high  a  temperature  in  sheds  or  pens,  rather  than  to 
exposure  to  the  weather  in  open  fields.  Flocks  that  are  more  care- 


DISEASES   OF  THE   LUNGS.  191 

fully  tended  and  housed  than  usual,  are  found  to  be  more  subject 
to  it  than  others.  Of  two  flocks  equally  well  fed,  but  one  of 
which  is  carefully  shut  up  every  night  and  protected  (?)  from  every 
draft  of  fresh  air,  and  another  whose  bed  is  the  snow  in  an  open, 
airy,  dry  yard,  it  will  be  the  first  that  will  be  troubled  with  cough 
and  discharge  from  the  nose,  while  the  latter  will  be  free  from  it. 
Fresh  air,  ample  ventilation  in  partly  open  sheds,  dry  yards  and 
clean,  dry  bedding,  and  protection  from  chilling  rain-storms  in 
winter,  with  whatever  protection  may  be  needed  immediately  after 
shearing,  should  the  weather  be  cold  and  rainy,  will  generally  be 
amply  sufficient  to  prevent  any  trouble  from  this  complaint.  Chas- 
ing by  dogs  and  consequent  over-heating,  and  over-driving,  are 
certain  causes,  and  these  should  be  carefully  avoided.  The  judg- 
ment of  the  shepherd  should  be  exercised  in  exceptional  cases,  act- 
ing always  under  the  general  rule  that  dry  cold  is  rarely  hurtful 
to  sheep,  while  they  suffer  from  wet  or  damp  cold,  and  that  moist, 
warm,  steamy,  close  atmosphere,  especially  when  confined  in  sta- 
bles, will  inevitably  produce  cold  or  catarrh,  which  if  not  at  once 
remedied  will  generally  result  in  serious  disorders  of  the  lungs. 
This  disease  consists  of  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of 
the  throat,  windpipe,  nostrils,  and  the  sinuses  of  the  head.  It 
produces  an  increase  of  the  secretion  of  mucus  and  consequent  ir- 
ritation and  coughing.  When  long  continued,  the  cough  becomes 
dry  and  deep  seated,  showing  that  the  lungs  are  involved. 

The  treatment  consists  in  removal  of  the  causes,  good  nursing,  ad- 
ministering slightly  warm  mucilaginous  drinks,  as  oat-meal  gruel  or 
linseed  tea,  along  with  a  gentle  stimulant,  such  as  half  a  teaspoonful 
of  ground  ginger.  The  antiseptic  effect  of  a  small  quantity  of  clean 
pine  tar  rubbed  upon  the  sheep's  nose,  some  of  which  the  animal 
will  lick  off  and  swallow,  will  be  beneficial.  If  there  is  fever,  and 
the  nose  is  dry  and  hot,  the  following  may  be  given,  viz  : 

Epsom  Salts !/a  ounce. 

Saltpeter 1  dram. 

Ground  Ginger 1  dram. 

This  should  be  mixed  with  molasses  and  placed  on  the  back  part  of 
the  tongue  with  a  long,  narrow  bladed  wooden  knife  or  spatula. 
The  animal's  head  should  be  held  up  until  the  whole  is  swallowed 
in  repeated  small  quantities.  Or  the  dose  may  be  mixed  with 
thin  gruel  and  administered  by  means  of  a  small  horn. 

Bronchitis  is  simply  a  deep-seated  catarrh  which  affects  the  bron- 
chial tubes  or  air  passages  in  the  body  of  the  lungs.  It  is  danger- 
ous, inasmuch  as  the  inflammation  readily  spreads  and  affects  the 
lungs.  In  bronchitis  the  cough  is  more  severe  than  in  catarrh, 


192  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

the  pulse  and  the  respiration  are  both  quickened,  there  is  some 
fever,  and  the  appetite  fails.  The  treatment  is  the  same  as  that 
prescribed  for  catarrh,  but  to  be  continued  longer,  changing  the 
dose  to  the  following,  to  be  administered  for  three  or  four  days, 
reducing  the  quantity  of  saltpeter  gradually  one-half. 

Linseed-oil 1  ounce. 

Saltpeter 1  dram. 

Powdered  Gentian 1  dram. 

Bleeding  must  not  be  attempted  in  this  disease.  Quietness  is  in- 
dispensable, and  a  clean,  airy,  but  solitary,  pen  should  be  provided, 
and  a  plenty  of  pure,  fresh  water  supplied. 

Pneumonia  or  Inflammation  of  the  Lungs. — This  is  a  more  fre- 
quent disease  than  is  generally  suspected.  Many  sheep  exhibit 
the  peculiar  symptoms  of  pneumonia,  and  are  too  far  gone  for  re- 
covery before  their  too  careless  owners  are  aware  that  they  are 
affected.  High-bred  imported  sheep,  the  Leicester  more  particu- 
larly, are  very  liable  to  this  disease,  which  is  generally  fatal  to 
them.  It  consists  of  inflammation  of  the  substance  of  the  lungs, 
and  frequently  follows  neglected  attacks  of  bronchitis,  the  inflam- 
mation easily  and  quickly  passing  from  the  lining  membrane  of 
the  air-passages  to  the  cellular  tissue  of  the  lungs.  Washing  in 
streams  of  cold  spring  water,  or  sudden  chills  from  exposure  to  cold 
showers,  quickly  succeeding  hot  weather,  or  when  heated  with 
driving,  or  after  shearing,  or  too  close  penning  in  warm  stables  in 
cold  weather,  are  the  usual  causes.  It  is  rarely  that  this  disease 
develops  fully  without  previously  passing  through  the  earlier 
stages,  or  without  some  serious  mistake  in  the  management  of  the 
sheep ;  and  it  is  only  by  instant  attention  and  proper  treatment 
that  its  usually  rapid  and  fatal  course  can  be  arrested. 

The  symptoms  are  a  quick  and  labored  breathing  with  painful 
heaving  of  the  flanks ;  a  painful  cough ;  discharge  of  thick  yellow 
mucus  from  the  nostrils,  high  fever,  and  great  thirst ;  hard,  quick 
pulse ;  constant  grinding  of  the  teeth,  together  with  loss  of  appe- 
tite and  rumination.  On  examination  after  death,  the  lungs  are 
found  to  be  hard  and  gorged  with  blood,  and  if  thrown  into  water 
they  sink  to  the  bottom.  The  disease  usually  terminates  in  death 
in  from  twenty -four  to  thirty-six  hours. 

Treatment  is  of  no  avail  unless  commenced  immediately.  Bleed- 
ing from  the  jugular  vein,  until  the  animal  staggers,  is  the  first  and 
most  effective  remedy.  If  found  necessary,  this  should  be  repeated 
in  six  hours.  Two  ounces  of  Epsom  salts  should  be  given  imme- 
diately after  the  bleeding ;  if  this  does  not  cause  free  purging,  one 
ounce  more  may  be  given  in  three  hours.  Copious  purging  is  not 


DISEASES  OF  THE  LUNGS.  193 

to  be  dreaded  in  this  disease  with  sheep  as  with  the  horse.  Injec- 
tions of  thin  oat-meal  gruel,  strained,  should  be  given  every  two 
hours.  After  the  bowels  have  been  well  evacuated,  the  following 
may  be  given  twice  a  day  in  oat-meal  or  linseed  gruel : 

Powdered  Digitalis 1  scruple. 

Nitrate  of  Potash 1  dram. 

Tartar  emetic 1  scruple. 

to  be  continued  several  days.  As  soon  as  the  sheep  improves  and 
begins  to  move  about,  a  pint  of  gruel  may  be  given  every  three 
hours  with  half  a  dram  of  powdered  Gentian.  Warm  drinks  of 
dissolved  gum  Arabic,  or  linseed-meal  tea,  hi  which  a  little  honey 
is  dissolved,  will  be  useful.  The  nostrils  should  be  freed  from 
accumulated  mucus  by  washing  or  sponging  with  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  vinegar  and  water,  or  of  one  ounce  of  acetic  acid  with 
a  quart  of  water.  Some  of  the  acidulated  water  should  be  squeezed 
into  the  nostrils  to  clear  them  as  far  as  possible. 

One  dram  doses  of  tartar  emetic  alone  have  been  given  with 
benefit  in  this  disease.  As  it  is  in  nearly  every  case  avoidable  by 
proper  care  and  precaution,  and  is  rarely  cured  when  once  well 
seated,  it  will  be  by  far  the  best  policy  to  prevent  its  occurrence. 

Pleurisy,  or  inflammation  of  the  membrane  covering  the  lungs 
and  the  lining  of  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  is  produced  by  the  same 
causes  as  pneumonia.  It  frequently  accompanies  this  latter  dis- 
ease. It  most  frequently  follows  the  careless  washing  of  sheep  or 
their  exposure  to  cold  winds  with  wet  fleeces,  or  from  a  severe 
chill  after  having  been  sheared.  After  an  attack  of  this  disease, 
and  a  seeming  recovery,  an  adhesion  of  the  lungs  to  the  sides  of 
the  chest  often  takes  place  which  prevents  the  sheep  from  thriving 
and  keeps  them  in  poor  condition,  from  which  they  cannot  be 
recovered.  Wide-spread  causes,  chiefly  those  arising  from  the  un- 
favorable condition  of  the  weather,  sometimes  affect  the  flocks  of 
extensive  districts,  and  lead  to  the  supposition  that  the  disease  is 
epizootic  or  contagious.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case. 

Prevention  consists  in  watchful  care  to  protect  the  sheep  from 
sudden  change  of  the  weather  at  a  time  when  they  are  more  than 
usually  exposed  to  its  ill  effects ;  also  from  a  too  sudden  change 
from  housing  to  open  pasturing  in  the  spring.  All  sudden  changes 
in  the  management  of  sheep  should  be  made  with  caution,  a 
change,  even  from  poor  to  rich  feed,  may  produce  this  or  other  in- 
flammatory diseases,  and  care  must  be  exercised  in  this  respect. 

The  symptoms  are  similar  to  those  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs ; 
more  pain  is  experienced,  and  the  sheep  exhibits  more  distress, 
sometimes  moaning  in  agony.  After  death,  the  cavity  of  the  chest 
9 


194 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


is  found  filled  with  fluid  ;  the  surface  of  the  lungs  is  highly  in- 
flamed, and  covered  with  livid  patches,  but  their  substance  is  not 
affected.  Generally  no  trace  of  disease  is  found  elsewhere. 

The  treatment  consists  in  copious  bleeding  as  for  pneumonia, 
but  more  blood  may  be  taken  with  benefit.  The  following  may 
be  given  : 

Powdered  Digitalis  ..............................  1  scruple. 

Nitrate  of  Potash  ................................  1  dram. 

Nitrous  Ether,  (Spirits  of  Nitre)  ..................  3  drams. 

to  be  administered  in  linseed-meal  or  oat-meal  gruel  twice  a  day 
for  four  or  five  days.  When  recovery  be- 
gins, the  following  tonic  may  be  substituted  : 

Sulphate  of  Iron  ....................  ya  dram. 

Infusion  of  Quassia  or  Chamomile.^  pint. 

dram. 


Ground  Ginger 


i/fl 


If  the  animal  is  valuable,  it  may  sometimes 
be  saved  after  the  effusion  of  serum  in  the 
chest  has  occurred  to  a  considerable  extent, 
by  tapping  the  cavity  with  a  trochar  and 
canula,  (fig.  74),  and  drawing  off  the  fluid. 
When  this  effusion  has  taken  place,  it  may  . 
be  discovered  by  tapping  the  sides  of  the 
chest,  when  a  dull  dead  sound  only  is  heard  ; 
also  by  a  gurgling  sound  during  expiration, 
which  is  painful  and  difficult.  The  trochar 
is  inserted  cautiously  between  the  eighth  and 
ninth  ribs,  and  the  canula  left  in  the  opening 
through  which  the  fluid  flows.  Generous  feed- 
ing and  great  care  are  needed  after  tapping. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS. 

Choking.  —  Sheep  are  not  often  troubled 
with  obstructions  of  the  gullet,  except  when 
fed  upon  cut  or  sliced  turnips,  or  permitted 
to  consume  the  shells  of  turnips  which  have 
been  scooped  out  by  them  in  the  field.  When 
a  sheep  is  thus  choked,  the  head  is  held 
down,  saliva  flows  from  the  mouth,  breath- 
ing is  difficult,  and  the  stomach  becomes  dis- 
tended with  gas,  or  air  swallowed  in  the  ef- 
forts to  dislodge  the  obstruction.  When  this  occurs,  the  sheep's 
head  should  be  raised  and  held  firmly  between  one  man's  legs, 


£.  74. — TKOCHAR 
AND  CANULA. 


COSTIVENESS.  195 

while  another  pours  a  teaspoonful  of  linseed  oil  or  melted  lard 
down  the  throat  and  endeavors  by  gently  manipulating  the  gullet 
to  work  the  obstruction  downwards.  If  this  is  ineffectual,  a  pro- 
bang  should  be  used.  This  is  a  flexible  thin  rod,  as  the  wash  rod  of 
a  rifle,  or  a  piece  of  light  rattan  or  other  tough  elastic  material.  A 
soft  ball  of  tow,  or  of  strips  of  linen  cloth  is  securely  fastened  to  the 
end  of  the  rod.  This  is  well  soaked  with  sweet  oil  or  lard,  and 
gently  inserted  into  the  gullet  until  it  meets  the  obstruction,  when 
it  is  to  be  forced  downwards  without  violence,  a  few  gentle,  but 
smart  taps  on  the  upper  end  with  a  light  stick  being  generally 
more  effective  than  continuous  pressure.  If  the  lining  of  the  gul- 
let is  injured  in  the  operation,  and  the  sheep  refuses  to  eat,  gruel 
or  other  liquid  food  should  be  given  until  the  soreness  disappears. 
If  the  obstruction  cannot  be  removed  in  this  way,  the  sheep  had 
better  be  slaughtered.  If  it  is  a  valuable  animal,  an  effort  which 
is  frequently  successful,  may  be  made  to  save  it  by  cutting  open 
the  skin  and  the  gullet  upon  the  obstruction,  and  removing  it.  The 
opening  in  the  gullet  is  then  closed  by  a  stitch  made  with  a  sur- 
geon's curved  needle,  and  the  wound  in  the  skin  closed  separately 
in  the  same  manner.  The  sheep  should  be  securely  held  during 
this  operation.  Soft  food  should  be  given  until  the  wound  is 
healed.  (See  Treatment  of  Wounds). 

Costiveness — Stretches. — This  complaint  is  more  frequently  a 
symptom  of  disease  than  a  disease  itself.  Yet  it  frequently  occurs 
when  changing  the  flock  from  pasture  to  dry  food.  The  dung 
then  becomes  dry,  hard,  and  scanty,  and  is  discharged  irregularly. 
The  termination  of  the  bowel  is  red  and  inflamed,  and  when  void- 
ing dung,  the  sheep  grunts  or  moans  as  with  pain.  Care  in  chang- 
ing the  food  is  a  preventive,  and  a  few  ounces  of  linseed-cake-meal 
daily  will  obviate  the  difficulty.  Injections  of  warm  soap  and 
water,  or  of  one  ounce  of  linseed-oil,  will  relieve  the  bowels,  and 
one  ounce  of  linseed-oil  given  by  the  mouth  will  generally  bring 
about  a  cure. 

When  the  costiveness  is  of  long  continuance,  from  neglect,  the 
sheep  may  be  perceived  stretching  itself,  spreading  the  feet  apart, 
raising  the  head,  curving  the  back,  and  extending  the  abdomen. 
This  may  also  occur  from  obstruction  of  the  bowels,  which,  how- 
ever, is  rare  with  sheep,  but  is  most  frequently  caused  by  costive- 
ness.  A  teaspoonful  of  Sublimed  Sulphur,  (Flowers  of  Sulphur), 
mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  molasses  or  lard,  may  be  placed  on 
the  tongue  to  be  swallowed,  once  a  day,  for  a  week.  A  regular 
allowance  of  a  mixture  of  four  ounces  of  Sulphur  with  one  pound 


196  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

of  salt,  placed  where  the  sheep  can  have  access  to  it  at  will,  is  a 
sure  preventive  of  costiveness. 

DiarrTiea  or  Scours. — A  looseness  of  the  bowels,  without  pain, 
fever,  or  other  complications,  frequently  occurs  when  sheep  are 
turned  to  pasture  in  the  spring,  or  turned  on  to  rich  succulent 
green  food,  as  clover,  rape,  or  turnips.  It  is  sometimes  perceived 
when  they  are  exposed  to  the  hot  sun  in  early  spring  without 
shelter.  It  is  not  dangerous  of  itself,  but  as  the  disease  very 
quickly  interferes  with  the  process  of  nutrition,  the  blood  is  soon 
affected,  and  the  more  serious  blood  disorder,  dysentery,  super- 
venes. Diarrhea  may  generally  be  prevented  by  careful  regula- 
tion of  the  food,  and  avoiding  sudden  changes,  and  the  regular 
supply  of  salt.  It  is  quickly  subject  to  proper  treatment,  which 
consists  of  the  administration  of  astringents  and  cordial  prepara- 
tions. The  following  mixture  should  always  be  kept  on  hand  by 
the  shepherd,  ready  for  instant  use : 

Prepared  Chalk 1  ounce. 

"       Catechu 4  drams. 

"        Ginger 2 

"       Opium Va    4 

to  be  mixed  with  half  a  pint  of  peppermint  water  and  bottled  for 
use.  Two  large  tablespoonf uls  of  this  is  given  night  and  morning 
to  a  sheep,  and  half  as  much  to  a  lamb,  always  previously  shaking 
the  mixture  well.  Cotton-seed-cake-meal  is  both  an  excellent  pre- 
ventive and  remedy  for  this  complaint,  and  a  supply  should  be 
kept  for  use.  Half  a  pound  a  day  should  be  given  to  a  sheep. 

If  any  mucus  or  glutinous  substance  appears  in  the  dung  it  is 
a  proof  of  the  existence  of  irritating  matter  in  the  intestines,  and 
a  laxative  should  be  given  previously  to  the  above.  This  may  be 

Linseed-oil 2  ounces. 

Powdered  Ginger 1  dram. 

OK 

Epsom  Salts 1  ounce. 

Ginger i/a  dram. 

Gentian i/2  dram. 

to  be  given  in  infusion  of  linseed-meal. 

Hoven,  or  distension  of  the  rumen,  is  not  uncommon  in  sheep. 
It  consists  in  the  formation  of  gas  in  the  first  stomach,  or  rumen, 
by  which  it  is  so  much  distended  as  to  press  injuriously  upon  the 
diaphragm  or  membrane  which  encloses  the  chest.  This  prevent- 
ing the  contraction  of  the  diaphragm  interferes  with  the  respira- 
tion. It  appears  as  an  enlargement  of  the  left  side  of  the  abdomen, 
by  which  the  skin  is  tightly  drawn  until  in  apparent  danger  of 


BLOATING.  197 

bursting.  It  is  caused  by  the  rapid  fermentation  in  the  stomach 
of  very  succulent  green  food,  which  has  been  greedily  swallowed 
while  wet  with  dew  or  rain.  The  stomach  may  at  the  time  be 
disordered,  and  its  digestive  powers  impaired ;  or  the  distension 
may  be  produced  by  other  diseases  of  which  it  is  an  attendant  or 
a  symptom.  In  such  a  case  it  indicates  a  decrease  or  chemical 
change  of  the  alkaline  secretions  of  the  rumen.  The  treatment 
should  be  immediate,  lest  suffocation  ensue.  An  alkaline  fluid 
poured  into  the  rumen,  frequently  alleviates  the  symptoms  and 
removes  the  trouble.  This  may  be 

Ammonia  Water  (Aqua  Ammonice) 1  teaspoonful 

Water Va  pint. 

to  be  administered  through  a  horn.  A  hollow,  flexible  probang, 
which  should  be  kept  for  this  purpose  may  be  inserted  through 
the  gullet  into  the  rumen,  by  which  a  means  of  escape  for  the 
gas  may  be  made.  The  alkaline  liquid  mentioned  may  be 
poured  into  the  stomach  through  the  tube  of  the  probang,  or 
an  opening  may  be  made  through  the  flank  into  the  rumen  with 
the  trochar  and  canula,  (fig.  74),  or  by  a  small  bladed  knife.  This 
opening  should  be  cautiously  made  at  the  spot  where  the  greatest 
swelling  is  found.  In  the  latter  case  a  quill  should  be  inserted 
into  the  hole  to  allow  the  gas  to  escape.  If  the  passage  be  stopped 
by  solid  matter,  a  wire  may  be  put  through  the  quill  to  restore  the 
opening.  The  ammoniacal  liquid  previously  mentioned,  or  a  solu- 
tion of  a  teaspoonful  carbonate  of  soda  in  quarter  of  a  pint  of 
water  may  be  injected  through  the  quill  with  a  common  syringe. 
Afterwards  the  following  may  be  given  with  the  horn : 

Epsom  Salts     2  ounces. 

Ginger 1  dram. 

Water 1  pint. 

If  the  production  of  gas  still  continues,  a  dram  of  chloride  of  lime 
dissolved  in  water  will  tend  to  remove  the  gases  generated  by  the 
now  decomposing  food. 

Where  none  of  these  appliances  are  at  hand,  the  following  sub- 
stitutes may  be  used,  viz :  Flour,  lard,  and  salt,  to  form  a  bolus 
mixed  with  one  dram  of  carbonate  of  ammonia,  at  the  early  stage, 
or  one  dram  of  chloride  of  lime  at  the  later  stage.  Small  boluses 
of  this  mixture  to  be  placed  on  the  root  of  the  tongue  or  into  the 
gullet,  so  that  they  may  be  swallowed.  Sulphuric  ether  is  some- 
times given  in  doses  of  two  drams  each  in  cold  water,  it  is  a  valu- 
able stimulant  and  antispasmodic  when  the  animal  becomes  rigid 
or  convulsed. 


198 


THE  SHEPHEBD'S  MANUAL. 


The  after  treatment  should  be  tonic,  and  the  food  should  be 

light  and  not  bulky.  Bran 
or  oat-meal,  scalded  and 
well  salted,  and  given 
with  1  dram  of  ginger 
would  be  useful.  The 
return  to  copious  green 
food  should  be  gradual, 
until  the  stomach  has  re- 
gained its  tone. 

Poisoning.  —  At  certain 
seasons  sheep  are  tempted 
to  devour  injurious  herbs 
or  plants.  St.  John's- 
wort,  when  frequent  in 
pastures,  produces  sore 
mouth  and  irritation  of 
the  intestines,  which 
quickly  disappear  when 
the  sheep  are  removed  to  a 
more  wholesome  pasture. 
The  Sheep-Laurel,  Lamb- 
kill,  or  narrow-leaved  Kal- 
mia,  (Kalmia  angustifoUa)^ 
(see  fig.  75),  is  eaten  by 
sheep  which  have  access 
to  it  at  certain  seasons, 
chiefly  during  the  winter 
and  spring,  and  is  often 
fatal  to  them.  The  symp- 
toms of  poisoning  are  dis- 
inclination to  move,  froth- 
ing at  the  mouth  and  nose, 
lessened  pulse,  stagger- 
ing gait,  and  blood-shot 
eyes.  Immediate  attention 
should  be  given,  as  death 
generally  occurs  within 
twelve  hours.  To  dilute 
the  mass  of  poisonous 
food,  and  to  expel  it 
from  the  system  as  soon 
This  may  be  done  by 


Fig.  75. — SHEEP-LAUBEL. 

as  possible,  is  the   proper  treatment. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  BOWELS.  199 

giving  two  ounces  of  Epsom  salts  in  a  pint  of  warm  water,  and  re- 
peating the  dose  of  water  without  the  salts  in  an  hour.  Injections 
of  warm  soap  suds  will  help  to  remove  the  injurious  matter  from 
the  bowels.  To  prevent  the  danger  of  poisoning  by  carefully  re- 
moving all  injurious  plants  from  the  pastures  or  fences  around 
them  would  be  the  obvious  duty  of  the  careful  shepherd.  The 
large  leaved  Laurel,  (Kalmia  latifolid),  is  also  eaten  occasionally  by 
sheep.  In  England,  the  yew  tree,  which  is  common  in  hedges, 
causes  the  loss  of  hundreds  of  sheep  every  year.  Sheep  should 
not  be  allowed  to  feed  on  pastures  which  have  been  dressed  with 
gypsum,  lime,  soot,  or  any  chemical  fertilizer  until  after  one  or 
two  copious  showers  have  washed  the  herbage  clean. 

Inflammation  of  the  Bowels.— This  disease,  (the  braxy  of  the 
English  shepherds),  is  not  frequently  met  with  in  this  country, 
except  as  an  adjunct  to  some  complicated  inflammatory  blood  dis- 
ease. It,  however,  sometimes  occurs  as  the  result  of  continued  in- 
digestion, or  the  consequence  of  feeding  upon  dry,  innutritions 
pasture,  combined  with  bad  water  in  hot  weather.  The  first 
symptoms  are  weeping  and  redness  of  the  eyes,  weakness  and 
staggering,  loss  of  appetite  and  rumination,  inaction  of  the  bowels, 
swelling  of  the  flanks,  high  fever,  and  diflScult  breathing,  a  puck- 
ered up  appearance  of  the  mouth  and  nostrils,  which  gives  a  pecu- 
liar wo-begone  and  pained  expression  to  the  face ;  a  tight  skin 
and  rapid  emaciation.  After  death,  the  stomach  is  found  filled 
with  putrid  food,  and  distended  with  gas;  the  bowels  are  gangre- 
nous and  in  a  state  of  decomposition ;  the  liver  is  partly  decom- 
posed and  filled  with  degenerated  bile ;  the  spleen  is  gorged  with 
blood,  softened,  enlarged,  and  not  unfrequently  ruptured,  ulcer- 
ated, and  exhibiting  a  seriously  diseased  condition.  The  latter  ap- 
pearance seems  to  identify  this  complicated  and  fatal  disease  with 
the  splenic  apoplexy  or  Texan  or  Spanish  fever  of  cattle.  Death 
is  often  very  sudden,  many  sheeep  left  in  apparent  health  at  night, 
being  found  dead  in  the  morning  ;  at  the  most,  two  or  three  days 
is  the  usual  course  of  this  disease. 

To  prevent  it,  when  circumstances  favor  its  appearance,  an  abund- 
ant supply  of  pure  water  and  a  change  of  pasture  should  be  provid- 
ed. Low  grounds  should  be  avoided,  and  everything  done  that  can 
ameliorate  the  circumstances  of  privation  in  which  the  flock  may 
be  temporarily  placed.  It  is  not  epizootic,  and  the  removal  of  the 
causes  will  prevent  the  spread  of  the  disease.  A  supply  of  salt, 
mixed  with  one  per  cent  each  of  sulphate  of  iron,  ginger,  and  gen- 
tian, to  be  given  every  evening  to  the  sheep  on  their  return  from 
pasture,  will  be  a  useful  preventive.  The  treatment  should  con- 


200 

sist  of  bleeding  from  the  jugular  vein,  at  the  first  appearance  of  the 
disease.  Bleeding  from  the  vein  on  the  abdomen  has  also  been 
practiced  with  success.  Mild  aperients — an  ounce  of  Linseed  or 
Castor  Oil  or  Epsom  salts— are  useful,  and  should  be  followed  by 
twice  daily  doses  of  one  dram  of  Sulphite,  (not  sulphate),  of  Soda. 
The  food  should  be  liquid  and  demulcent,  such  as  oat-meal  gruel, 
infusions  of  linseed  or  solutions  of  gum  arabic.  Except  the  ani- 
mal is  a  very  valuable  one,  it  will  be  hardly  worth  while  to  at- 
tempt a  cure  in  a  case  of  serious  character,  as  the  recovery  is  slow, 
and  the  f ollowing  debility  is  of  itself  often  fatal,  after  a  costly  and 
protracted  course  of  treatment. 

Concretions  of  Foreign  Bodies  in  the  Stomach. — Sheep  are  some- 
times observed  to  purposely  swallow  earth  in  small  quantities.  In 
pasturing  green  fodder  crops  or  roots,  much  earth,  and  sometimes 
small  stones,  are  swallowed.  In  eating  hay,  or  other  dry  fodder, 
foreign  matters,  such  as  nails,  pieces  of  wire,  or  glass,  will  some- 
times find  their  way  into  the  stomachs.  All  these  matters  cause 
much  irritation,  and  sometimes  death.  The  trouble  is  shown  by 
a  suspension  of  the  appetite,  the  sheep  lag  behind  the  rest,  stand 
for  long  periods  without  moving,  grind  their  teeth,  poking  out  the 
nose,  and  depressing  the  ears.  When  the  flank  is  pressed  a  grunt 
of  pain  is  heard,  and  there  is  violent  purging.  When  these  symp- 
toms are  observed,  and  the  sheep  are  known  to  have  been  in 
danger  of  swallowing  any  of  these  substances,  this  cause  may  be 
suspected. 

The  only  treatment  that  can  be  of  use  is  to  give  daily  doses  of 
one  ounce  of  Epsom  Salts,  and  feed  scalded  bran  or  corn-meal  in 
the  shape  of  thick  mush  in  order  to  remove  the  foreign  matter 
with  the  food  if  possible.  If  this  will  not  be  taken,  oat-meal  or 
corn-meal  gruel  should  be  given  copiously  with  the  horn. 

Balls  of  wool  and  earthy  matter  are  sometimes  found  after  death 
in  the  stomachs.  These  are  gathered  by  the  sheep  nibbling  them- 
selves when  irritated  by  lice,  ticks,  or  scab.  Generally  they  exist 
without  suspicion  of  their  presence  until  death  occurs,  and  in 
many  cases  without  known  ill  effect  on  the  animal.  It  would  be 
safe  to  avoid  possible  danger  in  this  direction  by  keeping  the  flock, 
especially  the  lambs,  free  from  parasitical  and  irritating  insects. 

Congestion  of  the  Liver. — When  sheep  are  highly  fed  upon  stim- 
ulating food,  and  have  but  little  or  no  exercise,  the  liver  is  apt  to 
become  gorged  with  blood.  This  fullness  of  blood  is  termed  con- 
gestion. It  is  occasioned  by  disordered  digestion,  and  when  it 
exists  to  a  serious  extent,  occasions  further  complications  of  this 


DISEASES  OF  THE  LIVER.  £01 

important  organ.  It  produces  constipation,  dullness,  and  a  yellow- 
ish tinge  of  the  eyes.  As  soon  as  this  latter  sign  appears,  there 
should  be  no  delay,  lest  inflammation  supervene. 

The  treatment  consists  in  giving  an  active  purge,  to  be  repeated 
every  morning,  until  the  bowels  are  in  their  usual  healthy  condi- 
tion, the  yellowness  of  the  eyes  has  disappeared,  and  the  appetite 
has  returned.  The  purge  may  be  the  following,  given  in  molasses 
placed  upon  the  tongue : 

Epsom  Salts 1  ounce. 

Calomel 3  grains. 

The  patient  should  be  supplied  with  slightly  warm  drink  soon 
after  swallowing  the  medicine. 

Inflammation  of  flie  Liver. — By  neglect,  the  disease,  last  men- 
tioned, may  result  in  inflammation  of  the  liver.  When  this  hap- 
pens the  system  becomes  fevered ;  the  nose  and  mouth  hot  and 
dry ;  the  breath  fetid ;  the  ears  cold  ;  the  eyes  pale  and  glassy  ; 
the  pulse  is  irregular ;  breathing  is  slow,  and  the  expirations  short 
and  sudden ;  the  dung  is  dry,  hard,  black,  and  glazed  with  a  greasy 
yellowish-green  mucus  ;  the  urine  is  highly  colored,  scanty,  hot, 
and  smells  disagreeably.  Pressure  on  the  right  side,  near  the 
short  ribs,  produces  pain,  and  the  animal  moans. 

The  treatment  consists  of  purgatives  and  injections.  For  a  pur- 
gative, the  following  may  be  given  twice  a  day  in  infusion  of  lin- 
seed or  gum  arable  or  in  molasses,  well  mixed  together  and  placed 
on  the  tongue  : 

Sulphate  of  Potash 2  drams. 

Calomel 5  grains. 

Powdered  Opium 1  grain. 

Injections  of  warm  water  and  castile  soap  may  be  given  until  the 
bowels  act  freely. 

When  improvement  occurs,  and  the  appetite  returns,  great  care 
in  feeding  should  be  observed,  and  only  the  most  easily  digested 
food  should  be  given.  Pulped  sugar  beet,  scalded  clover-hay 
chaff,  linseed-meal,  boiled  malt,  or  sifted  corn-meal,  may  be  given 
with  linseed  tea  for  drink,  or  water  acidulated  with  a  few  drops 
of  aromatic  sulphuric  acid. 

DISEASES    OF   THE    BLOOD. 

The  blood  being  the  very  foundation  of  the  life  of  the  animal, 
must  exist  hi  a  state  of  purity,  or  the  vital  functions  are  at  once 
disordered.  Anything,  therefore,  that  vitiates  the  blood  or  unfits 
it  for  the  proper  performance  of  those  functions  which  have  been 


20'Z  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

already  explained,  produces  what  is  known  as  blood  diseases,  or 
diseases  originating  in  and  communicated  to  various  organs  by 
the  blood.  These  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

1.  Diseases  arising  from  an  impaired,  increased,  or  arrested 
function,  or  process,  viz :  rheumatism,  plethora,  anasinia,  scrofula, 
dropsy. 

2.  Diseases  called  enzoblic  because  arising  from  animal  poisons, 
originating  either  within  the  subject,  or  communicated  by  the  same 
poisons  originating  in  other  animals,  viz :   influenza,  dysentery, 
red-water,  heaving  or  after  pains,  navel-ill  in  lambs,  black-leg  or 
quarter-ill  or  anthrax  fever. 

3.  Diseases  arising  from  animal  poisons  of  unknown  origin,  and 
which  are  highly  contagious,  and  freely  communicated  from  one 
subject  to  another,  hence  called  epizootic  diseases,  viz :   Epizootic 
aphtha,  small  pox. 

Fortunately  these  diseases  so  fatal  in  their  operation,  and  so  un- 
controllable in  their  course,  are  easily  prevented  by  proper  precau- 
tion and  ordinary  hygienic  or  sanitary  measures.  Also  in  the  salt, 
sulphite  of  soda,  we  have  a  valuable  remedy  against  those  ferments 
which  are  the  active  agents  in  the  majority  of  blood  diseases. 

Rheumatism. — This  disease  is  attended  with  considerable  fever, 
constitutional  disturbance,  and  the  presence  of  acid  matters  in  the 
blood.  It  affects  the  serous  membrane,  as  the  coverings  of  the 
joints,  the  substance  of  the  tendons  and  ligaments,  the  enveloping 
membranes  of  the  heart,  lungs,  spinal  marrow,  bones,  muscles,  and 
the  brain.  As  it  has  a  disposition  to  change  its  locality  almost  in- 
stantaneously, and  to  pass  from  one  joint  to  another,  or  one  part 
to  another,  (a  process  known  as  metastatis),  and  affects  all  these 
important  parts  of  the  body,  the  seriousness  of  the  disease  is  evi- 
dent. It  consists  in  a  peculiar  inflammation  of  the  parts  affected 
which  causes  acute  pain  when  they  are  called  into  action.  When 
it  passes  from  the  acute  to  the  chronic  state,  it  causes  serious 
changes  in  the  structure  of  the  joints  affected.  Its  symptoms  are 
general  uneasiness  and  stiffness,  a  diminished  or  capricious  appe- 
tite, and  sometimes,  suspended  rumination.  The  dung  is  hard  and 
scanty,  and  the  urine  is  high  colored  and  deficient  in  quantity. 
One  of  the  joints  is  found  hot  and  swollen;  in  an  hour  or  two 
this  is  relieved,  and  another  is  found  affected.  It  generally  attacks 
in  spring  those  animals  which  have  been  half  starved  or  exposed 
to  cold  or  damp  during  the  winter.  Rams,  which  have  been  over- 
worked the  previous  season,  are  often  affected.  Young  ewes  are 
rarely  troubled  with  it.  If  not  remedied  by  proper  treatment,  the 


DISEASES  OF  THE  BLOOD.  203 

animal  suffers  from  continued  fever,  general  prostration,  severe 
pain  and  emaciation,  and  eventually  dies  miserably.  The  treat- 
ment consists  of  a  moderate  purgative  at  first,  suck  as  : 

Epsom  Salts 2  ounces. 

Spirit  of  Nitrous  Ether 4  drams. 

Ginger 1  dram. 

to  be  followed  by 

Sulphate  of  Potash 2  drams. 

Sulphuric  Acid 530  drops. 

Water V*  pint. 

to  be  given  dissolved  in  water  night  and  morning.  Protection 
from  cold  and  damp,  and  soft,  laxative  food  are  required.  Lin- 
seed-meal, either  solid  or  made  into  gruel,  ic  a  useful  addition  to 
the  food.  As  this  disease  is  apt  to  become  chronic,  the  patient 
should  be  fitted  for  the  butcher  as  soon  as  possible.  A  rheumatic 
ram  will  beget  rheumatic  lambs. 

Plethora  consists  in  a  too  rapid  production  of  blood,  by  which 
the  system  is  engorged,  and  important  organs  become  congested. 
It  is  caused  by  over-feeding  with  rich  albuminous  food,  and  is 
counteracted  by  a  simple  purgative,  or  bleeding  from  a  vein  on  the 
face  or  the  jugular.  Its  effects  appear  in  a  flushed  condition  of 
the  visible  membranes,  labored  breathing,  staggering  and  sleepi- 
ness. It  never  occurs  except  in  animals  in  high  condition,  such  as 
those  prepared  for  exhibition,  and  which  hi  case  of  over  fatigue, 
or  excessively  hot  and  damp  weather,  suffer  greatly,  and  sometimes 
fatally,  from  engorgement  of  the  vessels  of  the  lungs  or  train,  or 
both. 

Anamia  or  Pining. — This  term,  "the  bloodless  condition,"  in- 
dicates the  nature  of  the  disease.  There  is  a  condition  to  which 
sheep  may  be  brought  by  the  effects  of  dysentery,  or  by  parasites 
in  the  lungs  or  intestines,  which  much  resembles  this  disease.  But 
there  is  an  abnormal  state  of  the  blood  caused  by  imperfect  nutri- 
tion, which  is  in  itself  a  disease,  and  not  a  symptom.  When  from 
continued  wet  weather  the  pasture  becomes  rank  and  watery,  the 
flock  appears  at  first  in  an  excellent  and  thrifty  state,  but  in  a 
few  days  the  animals  are  found  lying  listless,  with  drooping  heads 
and  ears,  watery  eyes,  and  the  expression  of  the  face  miserable 
and  painful.  A  few  days  afterwards  the  skin  is  tightly  drawn,  the 
wool  becomes  of  a  peculiar  bluish  cast,  the  skin  beneath  of  a 
pearly  white  color,  the  eyes  are  also  of  a  pearly  bloodless  appear- 
ance, and  death  is  busy  in  the  flock.  On  dry,  rich  clover  pastures 
the  same  effects  are  sometimes  experienced.  The  disease  never 
appears  on  steep,  rocky  hill  sides,  where  the  pasturage  is  short  and 


204  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

sweet,  nor  on  those  pastures  which  are  scant,  but  yet  nutritious, 
and  intermixed  with  coarse  herbage ;  nor  on  lands  that  are  abun- 
dantly supplied  with  lime.  It  is  impossible  to  know  beforehand 
whether  the  pasture  will  produce  this  effect  or  not,  as  it  seems 
most  probable  that  the  geological  character  of  the  soil  has  most  to 
do  with  it  But  when  once  a  farm,  a  pasture,  or  a  field,  is  found 
to  induce  this  ailment,  sheep  keeping  may  be  abandoned  upon 
it,  unless  the  flock  can  be  immediately  changed  to  some  other  part 
of  it  where  it  will  thrive.  A  change  from  a  pasture  field  to  a  corn 
field,  where  the  picking  amongst  the  hills  furnished  but  scanty 
feed,  has  been  found  to  produce  an  immediate  change  for  the  bet- 
ter. No  treatment,  other  than  a  change  of  locality,  can  be  indi- 
cated, and  if  the  farm  does  not  supply  this,  the  flock  must  be  dis- 
posed of  or  removed.  The  disease  unfortunately  is  not  well  un- 
derstood, for  it  is  sometimes  found  very  destructive  to  lambs  and 
yearlings,  which  are  chiefly  affected  by  it  It  is  frequently 
confounded  with  a  parasitical  disease  hereinafter  referred  to,  but 
a  post-mortem  cximination  of  a  subject  will  easily  identify  it  as 
being  different  from  it  as  shown  by  the  absence  of  parasites  in  the 
stomach,  lungs,  or  air-passages.  An  adequate  supply  of  supple- 
mentary food  would  of  course  act  as  a  remedy,  but  the  cost  of 
this  would  defeat  its  object  and  render  the  flock  unprofitable. 

Scrofula — Tuberculosis. — This  disease  is  almost  surely  fatal  in 
course  of  time,  although  at  first  the  sheep  subject  to  it  may  be 
brought,  by  proper  treatment,  into  condition  for  the  butcher.  It 
is  a  question,  however,  if  the  flesh  of  scrofulous  animals  can  be 
safely  consumed  as  food,  but  yet  many  such  go  yearly  to  the 
butchers  to  be  thus  disposed  of.  It  would  certainly  seem  that  the 
use  of  such  animals  as  food  should  be  carefully  avoided,  and  the 
sale  of  then-  flesh  prevented  as  injurious  to  the  public  health,  for 
no  taint  is  more  readily  conveyed  to  the  system  than  scrofula.  It 
is  supposed  to  consist  of  a  diseased  condition  of  the  blood,  by 
which  the  lymph,  or  white,  serous,  uncolored  portion  of  it  is  unfit- 
ted to  nourish  properly  the  tissues  of  the  body  and  to  be  built  up 
into  organized  matter.  Lest  the  accumulation  of  this  imperfect 
blood  should  embarras  the  system,  it  is  deposited  in  various  parts 
where  it  is  productive  of  least  inconvenience,  and  the  nutrition  of 
the  body  goes  on,  as  well  as  it  may,  with  the  remainder  of  the 
blood  thus  separated  from  the  useless  and  injurious  portion.  But 
it  is  frequently  the  case  that  there  is  not  sufficient  left  to  supply 
the  waste  of  the  tissues,  and  a  gradual  falling  off  in  condition  oc- 
curs. The  symptoms  of  "  consumption,"  a  very  significant  term, 
as  the  chief  organs  are  slowly  consumed,  then  appear.  The  pulsa- 


Z3TZOOTIC  DISEASES.  £05 

tions  of  the  heart  are  loud,  so  as  to  be  heard  on  applying  the  ear 
to  the  ribs;  the  poise  is  feeble,  the  appetite  irregular,  and  a  slight 
cough  exists,  caused  by  the  efforts  to  throw  off  the  accumulating 
and  offending  matter  from  the  rungs.  In  time,  the  giands  of  the 
body  become  loaded  with  the  deposited  matter;  those  of  the  throat 
and  neck,  the  parotid  and  snbmaxfllary,  being  most  commonly 
and  extensively  affected,  and  greatly  swollen.  The  symptoms 
gradually  increase  in  intensity,  and  there  is  much  fever  and  ema- 
ciation, with  discharge  from  the  nose  and  eyes.  The  skin  is  tight 
and  pate,  and  the  body  appears  almost  free  from  blood,  as  in 
anaemia.  At  this  period  there  is  no  help  for  the  animal,  for  death 
is  only  a  question  of  time. 

The  treatment  in  the  earlier  stages  is  to  administer  some  of  the 
preparations  of  iodine,  such  as  the  following : 

Iodide  of  Potassium 5  grains. 

OB 
Iodide  of  Iron 10  grains. 

to  be  finely  powdered  and  mixed  with  molasses,  and  placed  on  the 
root  of  the  tongue,  so  that  it  is  swallowed.  The  above  dose  to  be 
given  daily.  The  latter  preparation  is  to  be  preferred.  The 
swellings  may  be  robbed  daily  with  iodine  ointment  Koscroro- 
loos  animal  should  be  osed  for  breeding,  as  the  disease  Is  heredi- 
tary. High-bred  sheep  are  the  most  sobject  to  this  disease,  and 
**  in-and-in  breeding"  tends  greatly  to  produce  iL 

In  some  localities  an  enlargement  of  the  glands  of  the  neck, 
similar  to  the  disease  known  as  yoitre  in  mankind,  is  frequent 
amongst  sheep.  This  is  supposed,  doubtless  with  reason,  to  be 
caused  by  the  water  drank,  as  in  such  cases  the  removal  of  the 
flock  to  distant  pastures  has  led  to  the  disappearance  of  the  dis- 
ease. The  occurrence  of  the  symptoms  above  described,  however, 
will  be  sufficient  to  indicate  the  true  character  of  scrofula  as  dis- 
tinguished from  any  accidental  swelling  of  the  glands. 

Droptg  consists  in  the  effusion  of  a  watery  or  serous  fluid  in  the 
abdomen.  It  is  accompanied  with  inflammation  of  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  abdomen,  the  peritoneum,  from  which  the  fluid 
is  secreted.  It  is  caused  by  feeding  upon  rank,  succulent,  watery 
herbage,  by  which  the  blood  is  insufficiently  nourished.  A 
change  to  dry  food,  or  scanty  but  more  nutritious  pasture,  allevi- 
ates the  disease  at  once.  A  cure  is  generally  effected  by  the  use 
of  diuretics,  aperients,  and  tonics.  The  treatment  will  be  the  ad- 
ministering of  the  following,  or  such  others  as  may  produce  the 
desired  effect: 


206  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

Nitrate  of  Potash 1  dram. 

Sulphate  of  Soda 1  ounce. 

Ginger 1  dram. 

If  the  animal  is  in  low  condition,  the  sulphate  of  soda  may  be  re- 
placed by  the  following,  viz. : 

Linseed-oil 2  ounces. 

ENZOOTIC   DISEASES. 

Influenza. — This  disease  being  due  to  causes  which  occur  over 
an  extended  locality,  is  liable  to  affect  a  large  number  of  animals 
at  the  same  time.  It  is  erroneously  supposed  to  be  infectious.  It 
consists  of  inflammation  of  the  nasal  and  bronchial  passages,  con- 
siderable fever,  and  great  prostration,  with  general  disturbance  of 
the  system.  There  is  redness  and  weeping  of  the  eyes,  running  at 
the  nose,  cough,  great  weakness,  loss  of  appetite,  indigestion,  with 
impaction  and  sometimes  hoven,  or  distension  of  the  rumen.  It 
is  prevalent  after  continued  cold  and  damp  weather,  and  is  most 
severe  where  the  ground  is  low  and  undrained,  or  in  river  bottoms 
or  valleys,  where  morning  and  evening  mists  abound.  When 
Ihese  conditions  occur,  the  flock  should  be  kept  on  high,  dry 
ground,  or  in  dry,  sheltered  yards,  and  carefully  protected.  Their 
food  should  be  somewhat  improved,  linseed-oil-cake  or  corn-meal, 
buckwheat,  oats,  or  rye,  being  added.  A  dose  of  the  mixed  salt 
and  sulphur,  (1  quart  of  salt  with  4  oz.  of  sulphur),  should  be  given, 
and  any  ailing  sheep  should  be  well  nursed  and  treated  to  warm 
gruel.  These  precautions  will  generally  prevent  a  serious  attack. 

The  treatment,  when  the  disease  becomes  severe,  is  to  give  a 
light  dose  of  some  saline  purgative,  such  as 

Epsom  Salts »/a  ounce. 

Ginger 1  dram. 

in  a  quarter  of  a  pint  of  water,  or  mixed  with  molasses  or  honey. 
For  a  large  flock  the  medicine  may  be  mixed  in  bulk  in  proper 
proportions,  and  a  quarter  of  a  pint  given  to  each  sheep  by  means 
of  a  horn.  Those  more  seriously  affected  should  receive  the  fol- 
lowing, viz : 

Tincture  of  Aconite 10  drops. 

Solution  of  Acetate  of  Ammonia 1  ounce. 

To  be  given  every  four  to  six  hours,  decreasing  the  aconite  at  each 
dose  until  five  drops  only  are  given,  when  it  may  be  suspended, 
and  only  repeated  in  an  emergency 
L  If  the  eyes  are  much  inflamed,  they  should  be  washed  with  a 


ENZOOTIC  DISEASES.  207 

solution  of  one  grain  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  and  20  drops  of  lauda- 
num, in  one  ounce  of  water.  After  recovery,  the  feed  should  be 
laxative  and  nutritious ;  bran  mashes,  and  boiled  oats,  or  corn- 
meal  mush,  with  a  little  powdered  ginger  or  gentian,  and  a  pinch 
of  powdered  blue  vitriol,  (sulphate  of  copper),  in  each  mess,  would 
be  useful.  If  not  readily  taken  hi  the  food,  this  tonic  may  be 
given  for  a  few  days  in  honey  or  molasses.  Shelter  is  absolutely 
necessary  during  treatment  and  recovery. 

Dysentery  may  be  distinguished  from  diarrhea  by  its  more  se- 
vere symptoms,  there  being  much  fever ;  the  dung  is  mixed  with 
blood  and  mucus,  has  a  fetid  smell,  is  discharged  frequently,  and 
is  generally  in  hard  lumps  and  scanty ;  it  is  also  voided  with  pain, 
and  the  sheep  arches  its  back  and  moans  in  its  passages.  The 
wool  feels  harsh,  and  after  a  short  time  may  be  pulled  off  in  hand- 
f uls.  Sudden  changes  of  pasture,  from  poor  to  rich,  or  from  rich 
to  poor ;  dry,  indigestible  food ;  scanty  or  impure  water ;  severely 
hot  and  damp  weather  such  as  produces  rust  in  grain,  and  negle'ct- 
ed  diarrhea,  are  the  chief  causes.  Where  large  flocks  are  kept  on 
extensive  ranges,  the  best  course  is  to  remove  to  some  other  pas- 
ture, where  the  water  is  good,  the  ground  high  and  dry,  and  other 
favorable  conditions  abound.  The  treatment  proper  for  this  dis- 
ease is  to  give  a  laxative  in  the  first  instance,  as  follows : 

Linseed-oil.. 2  ounces. 

Powdered  Opium 2  grains. 

to  be  given  in  linseed  tea  or  oat-meal  gruel.  The  linseed  or  oat- 
meal should  be  continued  several  times  during  the  next  twenty- 
four  hours,  both  as  nutriment  and  for  its  soothing  qualities.  The 
next  day,  and  for  several  days,  the  opium  should  be  repeated  with 
one  dram  of  ginger.  An  occasional  dose  of  linseed-oil  may  be 
given  if  thought  necessary.  It  can  do  no  harm,  in  any  event,  if 
given  every  other  day.  The  effect  of  a  hot  sun,  in  an  unshaded 
pasture,  is  very  aggravating  to  this  disease.  Sheep  suffering  from 
it  should  be  kept,  if  possible,  in  a  cool  shed,  and  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  flock.  A  pasture  that  has  been  occupied  by  such 
sheep  will  certainly  infect  others  that  may  feed  upon  it  during 
warm  weather,  the  dung  conveying  the  poison  to  the  herbage. 

Red-  Water. — When  sheep  are  suffered  to  pasture  upon  succulent 
green  crops,  such  as  rape,  mustard,  or  turnips,  late  in  the  fall  or 
in  the  early  winter,  and  the  fodder  is  covered  with  hoar  frost  or 
sleet,  or  when  they  are  forced  to  scrape  their  food  from  beneath 
the  snow,  swallowing  a  large  portion  of  snow  with  their  food,  or 
when  the  stock  water  is  drawn  from  filthy  ponds  or  sloughs,  they 


208  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

are  subject  to  a  peculiar  disorder  which  often  affects  the  majority 
of  the  flock  quite  suddenly,  and  is  known  as  red-water.  In  this 
country  this  disease  is  rare,  being  known  chiefly  in  the  south-west 
and  west,  along  with  the  last  mentioned  disease  and  some  other 
disorders  originating  from  exposure  and  unwholesome  food  or 
water,  under  the  general  name  of  murrain.  The  symptoms  of 
this  disease  agree  with  those  of  a  so-called  "  unknown  and  new 
disease"  affecting  sheep  in  the  west,  which  has  been  described 
recently  by  correspondents  of  the  Agricultural  Department  at 
Washington.  The  sheep  affected  appear  dull  and  stupid,  and 
stagger,  carrying  the  head  upon  one  side,  the  eyes  are  staring,  and 
sometimes  blind,  and  the  bowels  are  obstinately  costive.  They 
die  in  a  few  hours.  When  opened  the  belly  of  the  sheep  is  found 
filled  with  a  red  fluid  wrongly  supposed  to  be  blood.  There  is 
also  general  congestion  of  the  principal  organs. 

As  a  preventive,  the  use  of  salt  is  recommended,  and  a  table- 
spoonful  of  pine  tar  given  to  each  sheep  every  ten  days  has  been 
found  useful.  A  pound  of  Epsom  salts  dissolved  in  water  with 
two  oz.  of  ground  ginger,  may  be  given  to  every  ten  sheep.  The 
simple  removal  of  the  causes  and  a  brisk  .purgative  or  diuretic 
would  doubtless  lead  to  a  recovery  if  given  in  time.  When 
inflammation  occurs  from  neglect,  the  bowels  become  affected,  and 
death  is  rapid.  The  peculiar  nature  of  the  sheep  makes  treatment 
at  this  stage  almost  hopeless,  but  if  it  is  attempted,  that  prescribed 
for  inflammation  of  the  bowels  would  be  proper. 

After-Pains  in  Ewes,  or  parturient  apoplexy,  arises  in  conse- 
quence of  a  feverish  condition  at  the  time  of  lambing.  It  oc- 
curs about  the  second  or  third  day,  and  its  presence  is  shown  by 
panting,  straining,  heaving  of  the  flanks,  a  staring  look,  scanty 
and  high  colored  and  strong  smelling  urine,  costiveness,  and  swell- 
ing and  redness  of  the  external  hinder  parts,  which  finally  be- 
come purple  and  black.  After  death  the  whole  system  is  con- 
gested, and  the  veins  filled  with  black  blood ;  the  uterus  or  womb, 
is  charged  with  pus,  the  absorption  of  which  poisoning  the  blood, 
is  the  cause  of  death.  This  disease  is  easily  prevented  by  reduc- 
ing the  condition  of  the  ewes  when  it  can  safely  be  done.  The 
safe  time  is  some  weeks  before  lambing,  when  a  gentle  purgative 
should  be  given  and  the  food  gradually  reduced.  A  bran  mash 
with  15  grains  of  saltpeter  may  be  given  daily  for  a  few  days.  A 
very  gradual  course  of  depletion  only  should  be  adopted.  If, 
after  lambing,  trouble  is  anticipated,  the  appearance  of  the  ewe 
should  be  closely  watched.  If  the  pains  occur,  the  following 
sedative  should  be  given  at  once : 


ENZOOTIC   DISEASES.  209 

Camphor Va  dram. 

Laudanum 60  drops. 

These  are  mixed  with  molasses  and  placed  on  the  tongue ;  the 
dose  may  be  increased  one-fourth  for  large  ewes  when  the  pains 
are  excessive.  One  ounce  of  solution  of  acetate  of  ammonia  may 
be  given  four  hours  afterwards,  and  repeated  twice  at  equal  inter- 
vals. If  a  fetid  discharge  takes  place  from  the  vagina,  a  solution 
of  one  dram  of  chloride  of  lime  to  a  pint  of  warm  water  may  be 
injected.  The  food  of  the  ewe  should  consist  principally  of  infu- 
sions of  linseed  or  oat-meal  gruel.  Bleeding  is  injurious,  as  are 
also  violent  purgatives. 

Black  Leg,  Quarter  IU,  or  Anthrax  fever,  is  known  as  the 
"black  spaniel"  of  the  English  shepherds,  the  cliarbon  of  the 
French,  and  as  one  of  the  "murrains"  of  our  western  states, 
where  it  is  most  frequent  in  this  country.  It  affects  young  and 
thrifty  sheep,  and  is  rarely  found  amongst  old  or  poor  stock.  It 
appears  in  the  spring  or  early  summer,  and  also  in  the  fall  months ; 
and  mostly  in  wet  seasons,  when  the  pasture,  under  the  fervid  heat 
of  the  sun  and  unusual  moisture,  grows  luxuriantly.  Then  the 
sheep,  with  vigorous  appetite,  gorge  themselves  to  repletion,  the 
digestive  organs  are  overtaxed,  the  blood  is  disorganized,  and  be- 
fore any  trouble  is  suspected,  the  sheep  drop  and  suddenly  die. 
When  the  carcasses  arc  examined,  and  the  wool  which  leaves  the 
skin  at  the  least  touch,  is  removed,  the  body  is  found  to  be  swollen 
and  blackened  in  large  patches,  chiefly  on  the  forequarter,  the 
flank,  or  the  hindquarter.  Air  is  gathered  beneath  the  skin,  and 
on  opening  the  body,  it  is  found  decomposed  and  filled  with  black 
blood.  If  the  flock  is  then  observed,  some  will  be  found  lame 
and  limping,  and  on  examination  the  sides  or  quarters  will  be 
found  swollen,  and  when  the  hand  is  passed  over  these  spots,  the 
•wool  readily  comes  off,  and  a  crackling  sound  is  heard  from  the 
motion  of  the  air  or  gas  collected  beneath  the  skin.  The  mouth 
and  tongue  are  found  to  be  inflamed  and  blistered,  and  the  eyes 
red.  The  urine  is  dark,  the  bowels  constipated,  and  the  dung 
when  discharged  is  bloody.  By  and  by  the  animals  are  unable  to 
stand,  and  fall  upon  the  side,  stretch  out  the  limbs,  and  protrude 
the  tongue ;  the  belly  is  swollen,  and  in  a  few  hours  the  sheep  is 
dead.  The  disease  is  much  worse  in  rich  bottom  lands,  or  moist, 
black  soils,  and  rarely  appears  on  hilly  ground,  or  gravelly, 
dryjjoils.  To  prevent  this  disorder,  it  is  only  necessary  to  pre- 
vent the  causes,  to  ensure  regular  feeding,  and  avoid  sudden 
changes  from  poor  to  rich  food  or  the  reverse.  The  treatment 


210  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

should  be  an  immediate  purgative.  The  following  may  be  given 
in  oat-meal  gruel  or  any  other  thick  mucilaginous  liquid : 

Sulphate  of  Soda 2  ounces. 

Mowers  of  Sulphur \  ounce 

Powdered  Myrrh .'.1  scruple. 

A  teaspoonful  of  spirits  of  nitrous  ether  in  a  pint  of  water  may  be 
given  in  six  hours  afterwards.  If  taken  at  the  commencement  of 
the  symptoms,  this  treatment  will  probably  be  effective,  but  if 
later,  the  uncertain  remedial  action  of  nature  alone  can  be  de- 
pended on. 

EPIZOOTIC   DISEASES. 

Aphtha,  or  "foot  and  mouth  disease,"  which  has  grievously 
affected  the  herds  and  flocks  of  Europe,  is  not  unknown  in  Ameri- 
ca. Fortunately  our  drier  climate,  or  some  other  preservative  in- 
fluence, has  very  greatly  circumscribed  the  course  of  this  disease. 
It  has  appeared  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  but  only  sporadi- 
cally, or  in  scattered  cases,  and  never  yet  has  it  swept  over  an 
entire  district.  Nevertheless,  no  one  can  be  sure  that  it  never  will 
so  appear,  and  as  an  isolated  case  requires  the  same  treatment  as 
any  other,  it  is  well  that  the  disease  should  be  described  here.  It 
is  a  true  blood  disease,  belonging  to  a  class  of  eruptive  fevers  aris- 
ing from  a  poisoning  of  the  blood,  and  is  highly  contagious  under 
favoring  circumstances.  It  affects  alike  cattle,  sheep,  pigs,  hares, 
and  rabbits.  It  appears  as  an  eruption  of  watery  blisters  upon  the 
lips  and  tongue,  and  between  and  around  the  hoofs.  The  first 
symptoms  are  a  fit  of  shivering,  succeeded  by  fever,  cough,  and  an 
increased  pulse.  This  is  succeeded  by  a  failing  of  the  appetite, 
tenderness  over  the  loins,  flow  of  saliva  from  the  mouth,  and 
grinding  of  the  jaws.  Blisters,  small  and  large,  appear  on  the 
mouth  and  tongue,  which  break  and  become  raw,  causing  great 
pain.  The  feet  are  swollen  and  also  covered  with  blisters,  which 
break  and  become  sore,  causing  the  animal  to  walk  with  difficulty 
and  shake  its  feet  or  kick  or  lie  down  persistently.  In  from  ten 
to  fifteen  days  the  disease  runs  its  course,  in  favorable  circum- 
stances, and  the  animal  recovers  gradually,  and  is  never  affected 
afterwards.  Otherwise  the  symptoms  increase  in  severity,  the 
sheep  lose  condition  rapidly,  from  inability  to  eat  or  move  about ; 
the  hoofs  are  sloughed  off,  and  sometimes  even  the  bones  of  the 
feet  are  cast  off,  leaving  only  a  stump.  In-lamb  ewes  when 
affected,  abort.  It  is  considered,  where  this  disease  is  virulent, 
that  the  cheapest  and  most  effective  plan  is  to  stamp  it  out  by  the 


SHEEP   POX. 

slaughter  and  burial  of  every  infected  animal,  and  the  removal  of 
those  that  are  well.  In  the  simple  form,  a  single  brisk  purgative, 
such  as  two  ounces  of  Epsom  salts,  with  a  small  quantity  of  gin- 
ger, generally  results  in  a  cure ;  to  repeat  the  dose  is  dangerous. 
The  mouth  should  be  washed  in  the  following  solution  twice  a  day : 

Alum  in  powder 1  ounce. 

Tincture  of  Myrrh 1  fluid  ounce. 

Water 1  quart. 

The  feet,  if  affected,  should  be  washed  with  soap  and  water,  or 
with  a  weak  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  then  dressed  with  car- 
bolic ointment ;  and  afterwards  bound  up  in  a  cloth  so  as  to  keep 
sand  or  dirt  from  irritating  the  sensitive  surfaces.  Sulphur  should 
be  burned  in  the  sheds  as  a  disinfectant  and  purifier,  and  the  drink- 
ing water  should  be  acidulated  with  one  dram  of  aromatic  sul- 
phuric acid  to  a  gallon  of  water.  All  sick  animals  should  be 
isolated. 

Sheep  Pax,  or  variola,  is  a  formidable  and  fatal  disease,  which  is 
very  frequent  in  the  central  and  eastern  parts  of  Europe,  and  has 
recently  been  introduced  into  England  by  means  of  importations 
of  infected  sheep.  Although  unknown  in  its  severe  type  in  this 
country,  yet  we  have  no  security  against  its  introduction  at  any 
day.  It  is  recorded  in  a  German  publication  that  on  one  occasion 
every  sheep  in  a  whole  district  was  swept  off  by  this  disorder,  the 
sheep  dying  without  any  apparent  reason,  as  though  they  had 
been  poisoned.  The  only  known  preventive  is  artificial  inocula- 
tion by  means  of  lymph  taken  from  one  of  the  mildest  cases. 
These  communicated  cases  are  exceedingly  mild.  The  practice  of 
housing  sheep  is  very  productive  of  this  disease,  and  it  is  when 
sheep  are  kept  in  small  flocks  and  well  supplied  with  fresh  air  and 
general  good  care  that  the  disease  makes  no  headway.  Whenever 
our  flocks  shall  be  overcrowded,  and  poorly  cared  for,  this  disease 
may  be  apprehended.  Sheep-pox  is  not  identical  with  the  human 
small-pox,  but  is  yet  of  the  same  type,  produced  by  the  same 
causes,  has  very  similar  characteristics,  and  is  equally  contagious. 
It  cannot,  like  that  of  the  cow,  be  communicated  to  mankind,  nor 
to  other  animals  than  sheep,  even  by  inoculation,  and  belongs  ex- 
clusively to  them.  It  is  a  true  blood  poison,  caused  originally  by 
the  absorption  of  impure  matter  into  the  blood,  probably  through 
the  lungs,  and  the  course  of  the  disease  is  an  effort  of  nature  to 
throw  off  the  poison  by  the  eruptions  which  appear  on  the  skin. 
There  is  a  period  of  incubation  of  the  disease,  which  lasts  nine 
to  eleven  days  after  infection,  and  during  which  no  symptoms 
whatever  appear.  After  this  the  sheep  sicken,  refuse  food,  and 


212  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

suffer  from  quickened  breathing,  a  hot,  dry  skin,  an  unquenchable 
thirst,  redness  of  the  eyes,  and  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils. 
At  this  period  the  eruption  occurs  on  the  body  just  as  in  the  hu- 
man small-pox.  The  bare  skin  under  the  arm-pits  shows  the  first 
indications  of  the  eruption.  Pustules  or  pimples  surrounded  with 
a  red  ring,  (the  areola),  appear,  and  gradually  after  three  days, 
come  to  a  head,  and  take  on  a  white  appearance.  It  is  at  this 
stage  of  the  disease  that  the  matter  is  collected  and  preserved  for 
the  purposes  of  inoculation.  The  symptoms  decrease  at  this  stage 
and  the  sheep  improve.  The  pustules  dry  up  and  form  scales  or 
scabs  which  fall  off  and  lea^e  in  their  places  "pits"  or  marks. 
But  it  may  be  that  these  pimples  run  together  or  become  "  conflu- 
ent "  and  ulcerate.  If  this  happens,  the  sheep  almost  invariably 
die.  Otherwise  the  recovery  is  rapid. 

Treatment  by  medicine  is  entirely  unavailing.  Good  nursing 
of  the  patients,  and  the  use  of  sustaining  stimulants  with  laxative 
and  demulcent  food  includes  all  that  can  be  done.  Linseed-meal, 
rice-meal,  and  oat-meal,  made  into  drinks,  and  given  warm,  with  a 
small  quantity  of  sugar,  or  molasses  and  ginger,  will  be  sufficient 
in  the  shape  of  food.  Pure  soft  water  made  slightly  warm,  and 
acidulated  with  a  few  drops  of  aromatic  sulphuric  acid,  should  be 
given  for  drink. 

Hopeless  cases  should  be  ended  at  once.  If  at  the  last  stage  the 
symptoms  become  worse,  and  the  pimples,  instead  of  becoming 
brown  and  drying  up,  ulcerate,  and  run  together  in  chains,  the 
animal  should  be  killed  and  buried  in  a  deep  pit  with  plenty  of 
lime  thrown  on  the  carcass.  Every  portion  of  the  dead  animal 
will  convey  infection,  and  in  no  case  should  the  wool  be  taken 
from  it,  unless  it  be  at  once  tub-washed  in  boiling  hot  soap-suds. 

On  the  appearance  of  the  disease  in  a  neighborhood,  the  unaf- 
fected sheep  should  be  inoculated.  A  quantity  of  the  matter  from 
the  white  pimples  is  kept  in  bottles  and  diluted  with  water  to  the 
consistency  of  cream.  A  needle  mounted  in  a  wooden  handle — 
a  shoemaker's  curved  awl  will  answer  the  purpose  excellently — 
is  dipped  into  the  fluid  and  is  thrust  beneath  the  skin  of  the  fleshy 
part  of  the  tail.  This  rarely  fails  to  communicate  the  disease 
which  is  so  slight  as  seldom  to  interfere  with  the  feeding  of  the 
flock.  In  a  paper  published  in  the  Journal  of  the  Eoyal  Agricul- 
tural Society  of  England,  Vol.  XXV,  Part  2,  1864,  written  by  a 
gentleman  who  had  had  charge  of  flocks  of  Merinos  varying  from 
a  few  thousand  up  to  twenty-five  thousand,  in  Russia,  and  who 
always  practiced  inoculation,  the  author  states  that  although  the 
sheep  under  his  charge  were  constantly  exposed  to  contagion 


DISEASES  OF  THE  BLADDER.  213 

from  neighboring  flocks,  in  which  thousands  died  from  neglect  of 
this  precaution,  yet  he  never  lost  a  single  adult  animal  from  the  dis- 
ease. In  those  countries  where  the  disease  prevails,  every  shep- 
herd has  an  inoculating  needle  amongst  the  implements  of  his 
profession. 

As  we  are  as  yet  exempt  from  this  disease,  and  as  it  is  readily 
communicated  by  contact  with  the  skin  or  fleece  of  a  diseased 
sheep,  and  with  the  present  rapid  communication  between  this 
country  and  Europe,  an  animal  might  easily  reach  here  within  its 
period  of  incubation,  constant  watchfulness  should  be  exerted 
to  prevent  its  importation.  That  we  shall  always  be  exempt,  is 
too  much  to  reasonably  hope  for. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  URINARY  ORGANS. 

The  urine  of  a  healthy  sheep  is  alkaline.  Under  some  circum- 
stances the  urine  becomes  acid.  This  abnormal  condition  pro- 
duces a  disordered  condition  of  the  highly  sensitive  urinary  or- 
gans. If  the  flow  of  the  urine  is  obstructed,  it  is  absorbed  into 
the  circulation,  and  a  variety  of  diseases  are  produced,  all  of 
which  have  one  constant  distinguishing  symptom,  viz :  tlie  strong 
smell  of  urine  given  out  by  the  other  secretions  of  the  system,  but 
especially  by  the  secretions  of  the  skin.  The  blood  is  poisoned 
by  the  absorption  of  the  matters  which  the  urine  should  have  car- 
ried off,  and  a  high  condition  of  fever  is  consequently  produced. 
Male  animals  are  more  frequently  affected  than  females,  by  reason 
of  the  peculiar  structure  and  length  of  the  urinary  canal,  already 
described.  Fattening  animals  are  especially  subject  to  urinary 
disorders,  and  such  need  close  inspection  and  great  care. 

Inflammation  of  the  Bladder  is  the  most  frequent  of  the  urinary 
diseases.  Feeding  upon  second  growth  clover,  which  often  con- 
tain lobelia,  St.  John's- wort,  rag  weed,  and  other  irritating  plants; 
or  upon  excessive  quantities  of  corn-meal,  or  drinking  hard  wa- 
ter, are  the  chief  causes.  The  acid  and  consequently  irritating 
character  of  the  urine  inflames  the  inner  coats  of  the  bladder.  The 
inflammation  spreads  to  the  muscular  substance  around  the  neck 
of  the  bladder,  and  this  is  contracted,  closing  the  opening. 

Retention  of  Urine  is  therefore  the  direct  consequence,  and  this 
involves  the  serious  complications  already  mentioned.  The  symp- 
toms are  uneasiness,  constant  lifting  the  hind  feet  and  stamping 
with  them,  spreading  them  out  and  straining  in  the  endeavor  to 
void  urine.  As  the  attempt  is  abandoned,  the  animal  moans  in 
pain.  There  is  general  disturbance  of  the  system,  fever,  and  costive- 


214  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

ness.  The  remedy  is  to  bleed  copiously  from  the  neck  and  to 
give  the  following  to  a  large  animal. 

Linseed-oil 2  ounces. 

Laudanum. 2  drams. 

For  smaller  animals  the  dose  should  be  reduced  proportionately. 
If  there  is  no  improvement  the  second  day,  the  bleeding  should  be 
repeated  from  the  other  side  of  the  neck,  and  one  ounce  of  linseed 
oil  be  given  daily  until  relief  is  procured.  Diuretics  and  saline 
purgatives  should  be  avoided.  After  improvement  the  food  should 
be  light,  and  infusions  of  linseed-meal  or  of  gum  arabic,  would  be 
useful. 

Sediment  in  the  Urinary  Canal. — Highly  fed  sheep,  or  those 
fed  on  dry  pastures,  which  are  deficient  in  water,  or  those  care- 
lessly denied  a  full  supply  of  water  in  winter,  when  they  are  fed 
grain  in  less  or  greater  quantities — rams  and  wethers  especially — 
are  those  which  are  subject  to  this  disorder.  Females,  from  the 
large  capacity  of  the  canal,  are  never,  or  very  rarely,  affected.  But 
in  male  animals  the  peculiar  appendage,  called  the  vermiform,  or 
worm-like  appendage,  through  which  the  canal  finds  its  exit,  be- 
ing very  small,  an  easy  obstruction  is  offered  to  the  passage  and 
discharge  of  any  sandy  or  muddy  deposit  of  the  urine.  Small 
stony  concretions  are  often  discovered  attached  to  the  wool  or 
hairs  around  the  vent  on  the  belly  of  the  sheep.  When  these  are 
noticed,  extra  care  should  be  exercised  to  give  abundant  water  by 
which  the  deposit  may  be  dissolved  and  carried  away.  When  the 
deposits  have  been  arrested  in  this  narrow  passage,  the  urine  is 
seen  to  pass  drop  by  drop  and  the  animal  exhibits  great  pain  and 
uneasiness.  All  the  symptoms  of  retention  of  urine  then  appear. 
The  treatment  is  to  place  the  animal  on  his  rump  and  draw  the 
penis  out  of  the  sheath.  It  will  be  found  inflamed  and  tender. 
It  should  be  fomented  with  warm  water,  and  the  urethra  or  canal 
below  it  gently  pressed  with  the  fingers  to  force  out  the  urine  and 
with  it  the  sediment.  If  this  is  successful  even  in  part,  some 
sweet-oil  should  be  applied  to  the  parts,  and  a  rather  large  dose 
of  linseed-oil  be  administered  along  with  an  antispasmodic  to  act 
on  the  neek  of  the  bladder,  viz : 

Linseed-oil 3  ounces. 

Extract  of  Belladonna 10  grains. 

On  the  following  day  the  urethra  should  be  again  examined,  and 
the  manipulation  be  again  repeated.  One  dram  of  Carbonate  of 
Potash  should  then  be  given,  dissolved  in  water,  three  times 
a  day.  If  fever  is  present,  the  belladonna  may  be  repeated, 
but  only  in  case  of  urgency.  No  saline  purgatives  are  to  be 


DISEASES  OF  THE  URINARY  ORGANS.  215 

given  in  affections  of  the  bladder.  If  the  sediment  cannot  be  passed, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  remove  it  by  an  operation.  A  lengthwise  in- 
cision is  made,  with  a  small  sharp  knife  blade,  at  the  junction  of 
the  vermiform  appendage  with  the  urethra,  on  the  lower  surface, 
and  the  stones  or  gravel  are  removed  by  pressure.  It  may  be  dis- 
covered in  this  manner,  that  the  obstructions  exist  all  along  the 
urethra,  in  which  case  there  is  no  hope  of  recovery,  and  the  ani- 
mal may  be  slaughtered.  In  case  of  wethers  the  vermiform 
appendage  of  the  penis  may  be  cut  off  at  once.  In  rams  it  may  be 
saved  if  possible,  although  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  for  suc- 
cessful stock  getting.  It  may  be  well,  however,  to  be  on  the  safe 
side,  and  save  the  part  out  of  respect  to  the  generally  accepted  be- 
lief that  it  is  needful.  It  is  known,  however,  that  many  rams 
which  had  lost  the  part  by  this  operation,  did  not  lose  their  useful- 
ness in  consequence. 

Calculi,  or  stone  in  the  bladder.  For  this  disease  there  is  no 
remedy,  and  if  after  the  fact  has  been  ascertained  by  the  previously 
described  operation,  or  in  any  other  way,  the  animal  may  be  killed. 

Clap  or  Gonorrhea. — This  disease  affects  the  sheath  and  ^enia) 
of  the  rani  The  first  symptoms  are  very  similar  to  those  of  sedi- 
ment in  the  urethra.  There  is  gre.at  pain  in  urinating,  and  the 
urine  comes  by  a  few  drops  at  a  time.  In  course  of  time  a  white 
acrid  discharge  escapes,  and  this,  in  case  of  neglect  causes  ulceration, 
which  may  destroy  the  organ.  Rams  thus  affected  should  not  be 
used,  as  the  disease  is  contagious,  and  the  symptoms  are  aggrava- 
ted. The  causes  are  excessive  work  and  want  of  cleanliness.  The 
treatment  consists  of  turning  the  animal  on  its  back,  withdrawing 
the  penis  gently,  holding  it  with  a  soft  linen  cloth  wetted  with  the 
lotion  mentioned  below,  until  all  the  diseased  parts  are  seen. 
The  organ  is  then  bathed  and  washed  thoroughly  with  the  follow- 
ing lotion,  viz : 

Spirits  of  Camphor 4  ounces. 

Sugar  of  Lead 1  ounce. 

Sulphate  of  Zinc 2  ounces. 

Water 1  quart. 

Mix  and  bottle  for  use.  If  any  of  the  ewes  have  become  diseased 
by  contact  with  a  diseased  ram,  a  soft  linen  cloth  may  be  wrapped 
around  the  finger,  dipped  in  the  solution,  and  inserted  in  the  parts 
until  they  are  thoroughly  washed.  Or  a  portion  may  be  injected 
with  a  syringe.  A  daily  dressing  should  be  given  until  a  cure 
commences,  afterwards  twice  a  week  will  be  sufiicient.  One  ounce 
of  linseed  oil  should  be  given  every  other  day  until  the  urine 
passes  freely.  The  food  should  be  laxative,  and  nothing  stimulat- 


216 

ing  should  be  given  until  a  cure  is  effected.  Copious  demulcent 
drinks  should  be  given,  such  as  infusions  of  linseed,  oat-meal,  or 
gum  arabic. 

DISEASES   OF    THE    BRAIN. 

Water  on  tTie  Brain,  (Hydrocephalus).—This  is  a  constitutional 
fault  which  is  present  in  the  ewe,  or  the  ram,  used  in  breeding.  It 
exists  in  the  lamb  at  birth,  and  the  head  is  generally  so  unnatur- 
ally enlarged  that  it  is  killed  as  not  worth  raising,  or  it  dies  before 
it  has  arrived  at  maturity.  If  there  are  many  cases  in  a  flock,  the 
ram  should  be  changed ;  if  the  ewes  are  at  fault,  they  should  be 
disposed  of  by  feeding  for  the  butcher.  There  is  no  cure,  and  an 
animal  so  deformed  is  a  disagreeable  object  at  the  best,  and  it 
should  be  destroyed  at  birth. 

Apoplexy — Staggers. — Some  of  the  high-bred  sheep,  the  Leices- 
ters  more  especially,  as  well  as  some  native  sheep  that  have  been 
poorly  kept  and  fed,  are  subject  to  occasional  attacks  of  giddiness 
and  blindness,  in  which  they  stagger  about  and  run  against  walls, 
fences,  or  other  obstructions,  evidently  unable  to  see.  The  attack 
comes  on  suddenly,  the  sheep  stops  and  stands  staggering,  or  still 

moves  on  its  former  course 
with  eyes  dilated  and  prom- 
inent, but  unconscious  of 
impediments.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  eyes  and  mem- 
branes shows  that  the  vessels 
of  the  head  are  full  of  blood, 
and  post-mortem  examina- 
tions have  shown  the  brain  to 
be  highly  congested,  and  some- 
times  the  vessels  ruptured. 
Fig.  76.— THE  FACIAL  VEIN.  Pressure  of  blood  on  the  brain 

is  the  cause  of  these  symptoms.  Plethora  from  continued  high 
feeding,  or  from  indigestion  or  other  disturbance  of  the  condition 
of  the  digestive  organs,  produces  this  determination  of  blood  to 
the  head.  Removal  of  the  causes,  depletion  of  high  conditioned 
animals,  by  saline  purgatives,  or  the  restoration  of  the  tone  of  poor 
conditioned  ones  by  good  food  and  tonics,  tend  to  a  cure.  Bleed- 
ing from  the  facial  vein  (a,  fig.  76),  is  often  useful  in  extreme  cases. 
Inflammation  of  the  Brain  (P7irenitis).—The  causes  which  pro- 
duce apoplexy,  if  long  continued,  result  in  inflammation  of  the 
brain,  and  this  produces  frenzy.  The  affected  animals  are  very 


DISEASES  OF  THE  BRAIN  AND   NERVES.  217 

violent,  dashing  hither  and  thijher  regardless  of  danger  or  damage 
to  themselves.  Lambs  thus  affected  leap  and  throw  themselves 
about  as  if  in  violent  play,  until  they  fall  and  die  in  convulsions. 
The  only  remedy  is  copious  bleeding  from  the  neck,  and  active 
purging  with  salts.  In  this  case  no  accompanying  stimulant  is 
needed,  and  for  a  full-grown  animal,  the  dose  may  be  increased 
one-half  above  the  usual  quantity.  There  is  always  congestion  of 
the  brain  accompanying  this  disease,  and  treatment  must  be  in- 
stant, lest  in  the  muscular  excitement  the  vessels  of  the  brain  be 
ruptured  and  sudden  death  ensue. 

Paralysis— Trembles.— This  disease  is  a  different  manifestation 
of  the  effects  of  pressure  of  blood  upon  the  brain  from  the  two 
diseases  previously  described.  In  this  disease,  in  addition  to  the 
base  of  the  brain,  the  spinal  marrow  and  the  nervous  system  con- 
nected therewith  are  affected,  the  congestion  occupying  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  the  vertebral  canal.  Its  effects  are  varied.  In 
some  cases  the  animal  loses  the  power  over  some  of  its  limbs ;  the 
hinder  half  of  the  bodies  of  some  are  lendered  incapable  of  mo- 
tion ;  in  others,  the  sheep  stands,  trembles  violently,  with  ( the 
head  drawn  back  or  to  one  side,  the  jaws  are  tightly  closed,  'and 
froth  is  forced  through  the  teeth  and  lips ;  the  breathing  is  hur- 
ried, and  the  fit  which  lasts  for  a  short  time,  recurs  at  short  inter- 
vals. At  other  times  the  animal,  which  may  appear  perfectly 
well,  will  suddenly  spring  from  the  ground,  scream,  and  fall  dead. 
Others  will  fall  deprived  of  motion,  and  remain  sprawling,  with 
limbs  stretched  out,  until  they  die  of  starvation.  The  power  of 
swallowing  is  gone,  and  there  is  generally  very  great  difficulty  of 
breathing  in  consequence  of  the  affection  of  the  pneumo-gastric 
nerve  and  the  resulting  paralysis  or  spasmodic  condition  of  the 
muscles  of  the  throat  and  chest.  Animals  in  poor  condition  sub- 
jected to  cold  and  exposure,  suffer  mostly  from  this  peculiar  form 
of  disease. 

The  treatment  proper  to  these  varied  cases,  depends  upon 
whether  the  patient  is  in  the  active  or  collapsed  condition.  On 
the  first  attack,  bleeding  from  the  facial  vein  is  the  proper  remedy, 
and  generally  gives  immediate  relief.  But  after  the  animal  has 
passed  through  this  stage,  a  condition  of  collapse  follows,  and  in- 
stead of  depletion,  the  opposite  course  is  necessary  to  be  taken. 
Tonics  and  stimulants  are  then  needed.  Warm  milk  or  gruel, 
sweetened  and  mixed  with  ginger,  followed  by  a  teaspoonful  of 
aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia,  or  one  scruple  of  carbonate  of  ammo- 
nia, mixed  with  gum  water  of  cold  linseed  tea,  should  be  given. 
If  the  bowels  are  constipated,  a  dose  of  linseed-oil  (but  no  salts), 

10 


218  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

should  be  given.  The  body  may  be  swathed  in  a  rag  dipped  in 
hot  water,  to  which  an  ounce  of  ammonia  water  has  been  added. 
On  recovery,  the  food  should  be  generally  improved  in  character, 
and  a  daily  dose  of  one  scruple  of  sulphate  of  copper  may  be 
given  with  some  meal,  or  mixed  with  molasses  and  placed  on  the 
tongue.  This  disease  is  the  most  frequent  one  of  the  kind  from 
which  our  flocks  suffer. 


is  a  very  similar  disease  to  the  preceding.  It  occurs 
chiefly  in  young  or  poor  sheep  which  are  turned  out  to  feed  early 
in  the  morning  when  the  herbage  is  covered  with  hoar-frost  or 
snow.  The  rumen  being  chilled,  causes  the  blood  to  determine  to 
the  brain,  and  the  animal  becomes  convulsed.  No  treatment  can 
avail  anything,  but  prevention  is  everything. 

Lockjaw,  which  is  a  violent  excitement  of  the  nervous  system, 
sometimes  occurs  in  consequence  of  exposure  to  wet  and  cold,  and 
sometimes  in  consequence  of  injury  to  the  nerves  through  the  vio- 
lent twisting  of  the  spermatic  cord  and  vessels  in  the  operation  of 
castration.  The  jaws  are  closed,  but  can  be  moved  laterally,  and 
there  is  grinding  of  the  teeth ;  the  head  is  bent  round,  the  neck 
twisted,  and  one  or  more  of  the  limbs  are  rigid.  In  this  condition 
the  sheep  may  remain  a  day  and  then  die,  or  if  it  remain  longer  it 
may  recover.  A  warm  bath,  if  the  sheep  is  not  too  large,  is  use- 
ful ;  and  the  animal  should  be  kept  warm  and  in  a  quiet  place.  A 
dose  of  two  ounces  of  Epsom  salts  should  be  given,  followed  by 
two  drams  of  laudanum  after  two  hours.  Warm  gruel,  with  a 
quarter  of  an  ounce  of  ginger,  should  be  given  two  or  three  times 
a  day.  Quiet  and  warmth  are  indispensable  to  a  cure. 

Palsy. — This  disease  consists  in  a  total  suspension  of  action  in 
the  nervous  system,  generally  in  consequence  of  exposure  to  se- 
vere cold  and  wet.  Lambs  that  are  thoroughly  chilled  by  cold 
rain  and  winds,  or  newly  shorn  sheep  similarly  exposed,  are  the 
most  frequent  subjects.  Ewes  having  been  exhausted  by  pro- 
tracted labor,  or  by  abortion ;  or  newly  dropped  winter  lambs,  that 
have  been  neglected,  also  suffer  from  it.  Heavy  feeding  on  man- 
gels or  watery  roots  has  been  known  to  produce  it,  and  it  has 
been  stated  recently  that  roots  grown  upon  land  that  has  been 
heavily  dressed  with  superphosphate  of  lime,  have  produced  this 
complaint  in  several  English  flocks.  It  is  very  questionable  if  the 
phosphate  has  any  direct  agency  in  producing  it.  The  sheep  suf- 
fering from  it  lie  totally  helpless,  the  whole  body  being  incapable 
of  movement,  the  respiration  is  almost  stopped,  and  the  eye  is 
dead  looking  and  lifeless,  the  eyelids  quivering  occasionally. 


PARASITICAL  DISEASES.  319 

The  treatment  consists  in  the  application  of  warmth,  and  a 
stimulant  such  as  mustard  or  ammonia  and  sweet-oil  rubbed  on 
the  brisket  and  the  spine.  The  following  dose  may  be  given  twice 
a  day,  viz : 

Spirits  of  Nitrous  Ether 2  drams. 

Powdered  Ginger 1      " 

"         Gentian 1      " 

Warm  drinks  should  be  given  at  short  intervals.  If  the  animal  is 
purged,  the  chalk  mixture  prescribed  for  diarrhea  should  be  given. 
If  the  palsy  is  not  relieved  by  this  treatment,  the  following  may 
be  given : 

Tincture  of  Nux  Vomica 4  drops. 

OB 

Strychnine »/4  grain. 

diffused  in  a  quarter  of  a  pint  of  linseed  gruel,  and  the  dose  slightly 
increased,  afterwards  repeated.  In  the  case  of  a  valuable  animal, 
this  potent  medicine  should  be  given  with  great  care,  or  only  by  a 
veterinary  surgeon. 

PARASITICAL   DISEASES   OF   THE   INTESTINES. 

Parasites  which  infest  animals  are  divided  into  two  classes,  in- 
ternal parasites  called  entozoa,  and  external  ones  which  are  called 
epizoa.  Since  the  natural  history  of  microscopic  animals  and 
those  which  undergo  changes  only  to  be  discovered  by  the  use  of 
the  microscope,  has  become  better  known,  much  in  regard  to  some 
peculiar  diseases  of  animals,  is  now  understood.  Formerly  it  was 
believed  that  spontaneous  generation  of  minute  animalcule  could 
occur,  and  that  parasites  were  "  bred  "  by  diseased  matter.  What 
was  then  supposed  to  be  the  consequence  of  certain  diseased  con- 
ditions is  now  known  to  be  the  cause  of  them,  and  the  whole  subject 
of  parasitical  disease  is  in  course  of  satisfactory  explanation.  But 
as  yet  there  is  much  to  learn,  and  the  investigation  of  the  subject 
is  surrounded  with  difficulties.  The  most  important  of  all  the  in- 
ternal parasites  which  injuriously  affect  the  sheep  is  undoubtedly 
that  known  as 

The  Liver  Fluke,  the  distoma  hepaticum  of  Rudolphi,  or  the 
fasciola  hepatica  of  Linnaeus,  which  inhabits  the  gall  bladder  and 
ducts,  and  penetrates  the  substance  of  the  liver.  Its  presence 
in  this  organ  produces  disorder  of  its  functions  and  a  diseased  con- 
dition of  the  animal  known  as 

The  Rot,  oi'  tfw  Liver  Rot. — This  disease  has  been  the  most 
dreaded  by  the  shepherd  for  centuries  past.  It  has  carried  off 


220 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


Fig.  77. — SHEEP  AFFECTED  WITH 
ROT. 


millions  of  sheep  in  a  single  year,  in  Australia  and  South  America, 
and  is  very  prevalent  in  Europe.  In  1830  two  million  sheep  died 
in  England  of  this  disease.  It  exists  in  America  both  in  imported 
sheep  and  the  native  flocks,  and  thousands  die  every  year  of  it 
without  their  owners  having  knowledge  of  the  cause.  The  symp- 
toms of  the  disease  are,  however,  very  marked  and  significant.  In 

the  healthy  sheep  the  conjunc- 
tiva, or  the  membrane  which 
covers  the  eyeball  in  front,  and 
lines  the  eyelid,  is  brilliantly 
red ;  so  much  so,  that  those  un- 
used to  observe  these  things 
closely,  would  suppose  the  eye 
to  be  highly  inflamed.  When 
affected  with  the  rot,  the  con- 
junctiva is  pale  and  eyeball 
yellowish.  When  this  sign  ap- 
pears, and  the  sheep  is  found  to 
be  ailing,  it  is  certainly  infested  with  flukes.  There  are  other 
symptoms  which  indicate  less  certainly  this  disease,  because  they 
are  found  present  in  other  ailments  also,  but  this  symptom  is  pe- 
culiar to  this  parasite.  As  the 
disease  progresses,  dropsy  is 
always  present,  and  a  wa- 
tery tumor  or  bag  appears 
beneath  the  lower  jaw.  The 
skin  is  pale  and  bloodless, 
and  the  wool  is  dry,  harsh, 
ragged,  and  readily  parts 
from  the  skin.  The  skin  is 
drawn  tightly,  and  the  spine 
is  arched  and  prominent,  as 
seen  in  figure  77.  The  ap- 
petite is  irregular,  and  de- 
praved,  and  the  thirst  excessive.  These  symptoms  increase  until 
the  sheep  dies  completely  emaciated. 

The  fluke  is  a  member  of  a  family  of  sucking  worms  (similar  to 
the  leeches),  known  as  distomaB.  It  is  a  flat,  oval  shaped  animal 
more  thickly  conical  in  front,  and  has  a  sucker  or  mouth.  Where 
the  thicker  part  joins  the  flatter  hinder  part,  there  is  a  second 
sucker  upon  the  underside.  In  figure  78  are  shown  the  full  grown 
flukes  as  taken  from  the  gall  ducts  of  a  sheep,  and  in  figure  79  are 
represented  immature  flukes  from  the  same  animal.  The  fluke  is 


THE   LIVER   FLUKE. 


221 


a  highly  organized  animal.     It  possesses  a  branched  intestinal 
canal  arid  digestive  organs,  seen  at  figure  80,  and  a  fully  devel- 
oped circulatory  system  seen  at  figure  81.    These  figures  are  life- 
size.    The  fluke  possesses  the  power  of  self-impreg- 
nation should  a  second  individual  not  be  present 
for  copulation.    It  propagates  by  means  of  eggs, 
which  are  produced  in  great  numbers,  and  which 
pass  with  the  bile  into  the  intestinal  caDal,  from 
whence  they  are  voided  with  the  dung  of  the  sheep. 
Fig.  79.         rp^  6ggS  nee(j  to  ke  -Cashed  by  rain  Or  flood  into 

stagnant  water  to  become  developed.  The  embryo,  covered  with 
ciliae  or  arms — the  locomotive  organs — leaves  the  shell  and  swims 
in  the  water.  It  is  then  believed,  from  our  present  knowledge  of 
its  habits,  to  penetrate  the  bodies  of  snails  or  other  amphibious 
molluscs,  and  thus  pass  a  stage  of  its  existence.  These  soft-bodied 
molluscs  being  swallowed  by  the  sheep  which  graze  in  low,  moist 
pastures,  along  with  the  herbage ;  the  parasites  contained  in  them 
are  introduced  into  the  stomach, 
from  which  they  pass  by  the 
gall  ducts,  into  the  liver,  and 
thus  complete  the  round  of  their 
existence.  They  collect  hi 
masses,  sometimes  closely  pack- 
ed in  the  gall  ducts,  obstruct  the 
flow  of  the  gall,  and  set  up 
irritation,  and  thus  produce 
jaundice,  by  which  the  mem- 
branes are  colored  yellow.  At 
this  first  outset  of  the  disease 
the  sheep  seems  to  thrive  and 
make  fat  rapidly,  but  the  fat  is 
highly  colored,  especially  that  of  the  kidneys  and  brisket.  Some 
English  feeders  have  purposely  exposed  their  sheep  to  the  flukes 
to  hasten  the  fattening.  But  this  stage  passed,  the  structure  of 
the  liver  becomes  changed  from  the  irritation  and  pressure ;  the 
gall  ducts  become  enlarged  into  extensive  cavities,  which  are  filled 
with  flukes  and  their  eggs.  The  pain  thus  caused  makes  the  ani- 
mal restless  and  thin.  The  partial  destruction  of  the  liver,  and 
stoppage  of  its  functions,  causes  diarrhea,  dropsy,  and  the  disor- 
ganization of  the  blood,  which  constitute  the  fatal  rot.  The 
course  of  this  disease  is  rapid.  At  the  latter  end  the  whole  system 
is  deranged.  The  breath  is  offensive,  a  deep  distressing  cough  with 
fever  racks  the  animal,  the  skin  is  covered  with  yellowish  and 


Fig.  80. 


Fig.  81. 


222  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

black  patches ;  the  abdomen  enlarges  from  the  accumulated  fluid ; 
the  animal  is  very  weak,  and  lies  with  its  head  thrust  out,  solitary 
and  separate  from  its  fellows  until  it  dies.  On  opening  the  sheep, 
the  whole  carcass  is  literally  rotten.  Yellow  serum  follows  the 
knife  everywhere,  the  abdomen  being  filled  with  it.  The  liver  is 
found  full  of  hard  spots  and  ulcers,  and  the  ducts  filled  with  flukes. 
The  treatment  consists  wholly  in  prevention  or  in  attention  at 
the  first  stages.  When  the  rot  has  become  developed,  no  medi- 
cine avails  anything.  It  is  wholly  and  surely  prevented  by  keep- 
ing the  sheep  on  dry  pastures  and  away  from  stagnant  water.  The 
fluke  there  can  find  no  development.  Low  pastures  should  be 
drained,  ponds  fenced  off,  and  well  water  used  for  drinking  pur- 
poses. Hay  from  low  grounds  may  even  communicate  this  dis- 
ease. When  these  preventive  measures  cannot  be  wholly  carried 
out,  the  sheep  should  be  abundantly  supplied  with  salt,  and  on 
the  first  appearance  of  suspicious  symptoms,  the  following  mixture 
should  be  administered,  viz: 

Saltpeter I1/?  ounce. 

Powdered  Ginger 1 

Carbonate  of  Iron  (colcothar  of  vitriol)  ya      " 

Salt 1     pound. 

Boiling  water 3     quarts. 

The  above  to  be  mixed,  and  when  nearly  cool,  9  ounces  of  spirits 
of  turpentine  are  to  be  added.  The  whole  is  bottled  in  quart  bot- 
tles for  use,  and  when  administered  should  be  well  shaken  to  mix 
the  ingredients  thoroughly. 

Infected  sheep  should  be  kept  from  food  all  night,  and  on  the 
following  morning,  before  feeding,  each  should  receive  two  ounces 
(a  wine-glass  full)  of  the  mixture  by  means  of  a  horn.  No  food 
should  be  given  for  three  hours.  The  medicine  is  repeated  every 
fourth  day  for  two  weeks. 

Sheep  may  live  and  thrive,  and  yet  carry  flukes.  How  many 
they  can  tolerate  without  serious  injury,  is  a  question  that  will 
probably  never  be  satisfactorily  answered.  It  is  proper  that  the 
shepherd  should  be  always  on  his  guard  against  them,  for  the 
reason  that  this  animal  is  now  known  to  be  native  in  this  country 
as  well  as  in  almost  the  whole  world.  Deer,  antelopes,  and  hares 
have  been  found  infested  by  them.  A  careful  and  trustworthy 
naturalist,  Mr.  Joseph  Batty,  a  member  of  Prof.  Hayden's  explor- 
ing expeditions,  has  discovered  over  a  hundred  flukes  in  the  liver 
of  one  hare  in  Minnesota.  A  fluke,  of  which  figure  82  is  a  draw- 
ing from  nature,  reduced  one-half,  was  taken  by  Mr.  Batty  from 
the  liver  of  a  deer  in  the  winter  of  1874-5.  The  liver  in  question 


THE  LUNG  THREAD-WORM.  223 

was  filled  with  them,  and  a  number  of  them  are  now  preserved 
in  the  museum  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute  at  Washington.  The 
author  found  them  (along  with  numerous  specimens  of  atrongylus 
filaria,  in  the  lungs),  in  the  flock  of  South- 
downs  belonging  to  Royal  Phelps,  Esq.,  of 
Babylon,  L.  I.,  and  also  in  his  own  Cotswold, 
Leicester,  and  native  sheep,  which  had  been 
allowed  to  pasture  occasionally  along  the  banks 
of  a  stream,  and  to  drink  for  a  whole  summer 
at  a  running  spring  in  which  many  watercresses 
and  other  aquatic  plants  grew.  In  these  cases 
the  medicine  above  prescribed  brought  about 
an  entire  cure. 

As  the  course  of  the  disease  is  rapidly  ex- 
haustive, sheep  that  are  affected  should  be  well 
fed  with  nutritious  and  easily  digested  food ; 
Fig.  82.— FLUKE       a  pint  per  dav^  for  each  gheep^  of  Hnseed-oil- 

5EB'  cake-meal  mixed  with  bran,  will  be  of  the 
greatest  service  on  their  recovery,  or  as  soon  as  the  appetite  returns. 
The  Lung  Strangle. — The  "lung  thread-worm,"  (strongylus 
filaria],  lives  in  the  wind-pipe,  the  bronchial  tubes,  and  the  tissues 
of  the  sheep's  lungs.  It  is  a  white,  thread-like  worm,  from  one 
inch  to  three  inches  in  length.  Its  natural  history  is  supposed  to 
be  as  follows.  The  worms  present  in  the  lungs  breed  and  produce 
eggs,  which  contain  fully  developed  young,  wound  up  in  a  spiral 
form  in  a  thin  shell.  These  embryos  soon  leave  the  shell  and 
move  about  in  the  tubes,  causing  great  irritation  and  a  secretion  of 
mucus,  upon  which  they  feed  and  grow.  It  is  not  certainly  known 
as  yet  if  the  sheep  in  the  violent  coughing  caused  by  the  irritation 
expels  any  of  the  eggs  or  young  worms,  and  that  they  then  pass  a 
portion  of  their  existence  in  the  open  air,  finding  their  way  into 
the  lungs  of  fresh  bearers  by  the  trachea  in  the  passage  of  the 
food  through  the  mouth  or  gullet,  or  from  the  stomach  in  the  act 
of  rumination ;  or  if  the  worm  completes  its  whole  existence  in 
the  lungs  of  its  bearer.  It  is  most  probable  that  the  former  sup- 
position is  the  true  one,  as  it  explains  the  fact  that  the  worms  are 
often  found  in  young  lambs  in  such  quantities  as  to  cause  suffoca- 
tion. Besides,  it  is  known  that  flocks  which  follow  other  sheep 
upon  pastures,  or  which  feed  upon  fields  that  have  been  manured 
with  sheeps'  dung,  have  been  attacked  with  this  disease.  An  in- 
teresting case  in  point  is  stated  by  a  Pennsylvania  correspondent 
of  the  Country  Gentleman  of  March  25th,  1875.  Some  ram  lambs 
were  pastured  in  a  field  upon  which  their  dams  had  been  kept  the 


224  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

previous  year,  and  which  had  been  top-dressed  with  manure  from 
the  sheep  sheds.  Nineteen  out  of  forty  of  the  lambs  died.  The 
f ollowing  year  twenty-three  lambs  died,  and  the  post-mortem  of  the 
physician  showed  the  fact  that  the  larynx  and  trachea  were  cov- 
ered on  their  inner  surface  "  with  a  frothy  mucus,  generally  white, 
but  here  and  there  of  a  yellowish  hue,"  also  in  this  mucus  were 
"several  worm-like  bodies  about  one-half  a  line  in  diameter,  and 
from  one  to  two  inches  in  length."  Under  the  microscope  these 
proved  to  be  articulates,  some  of  which  contained  what  seemed 
to  be  ova.  A  microscopic  examination  of  the  mucus  showed  these 
ova  in  various  stages  of  development.  The  worm -like  bodies  were 
undoubtedly  the  lung  thread-worms  under  consideration.  For 
several  years  afterwards  the  lambs  which  pastured  on  the  top- 
dressed  meadows  took  the  disease  and  died.  The  symptoms  which 
indicate  the  presence  of  this  worm  are  a  loss  of  condition,  a  con- 
stant and  severe  cough,  a  dropsical  condition,  as  shown  by  the 
watery  tumor  beneath  the  throat,  and  a  pining  and  wasting  away. 
The  skin  is  pale,  and  the  eyes  pearly,  and  bloodless.  After  death 
there  is  no  sign  of  disease,  except  the  presence  of  the  worms  in  the 
lungs  and  windpipe,  and  complete  emaciation.  The  means  of 
prevention  are  obvious.  Pastures  or  meadows  should  not  be  top- 
dressed  with  sheeps'  manure  unless  they  are  to  be  plowed  and 
sown  to  grain  crops,  and  if  a  pasture  is  found  to  be  infected,  it 
should  be  plowed  up  and  re-sown.  All  sheep  having  the  charac- 
teristic cough  should  be  fattened  and  killed. 

The  treatment  proper  in  this  case  is  the  same  as  that  recom- 
mended for  the  liver  fluke,  and  the  mixture  mentioned  on  page 
222,  should  be  administered  as  there  stated.  Turpentine  and  salt 
are  found  to  be  almost  sure  remedies  for  internal  parasites  of  all 
kinds,  and  extra  feeding  to  resist  the  draft  upon  the  system  will  be 
useful. 

Hydatids  or  Bladder -Worms. — The  association  of  the  dog  with 
the  sheep  upon  farms,  is  productive  of  much  mischief  in  addition 
to  the  vast  annual  slaughter  of  the  latter  occasioned  thereby.  The 
great  majority  of  dogs  are  infested  with  tape-worms.  The  eggs 
of  the  tape-worms  discharged  in  the  dung  of  the  dog  upon  fields 
and  pastures  are  swallowed  by  the  sheep  with  the  herbage,  and  the 
larval  state  of  the  worms  is  developed  within  their  bodies,  either  in 
the  lungs,  the  abdomen,  or  the  brain,  causing  disease  which  is 
often  fatal.  The  larvae  of  the  tape-worm  exist  in  the  shape  of 
watery  bladders,  or  sacs,  which  contain  the  undeveloped  worms. 
These  peculiar  creatures  are  known  as  bladder- worms  or  hydatids. 


HYDATIDS   OR   TAPE-WORMS. 


225 


Ffe.  83. 


One  of  these  occupies  the  abdominal  cavity  of  the  sheep,  and  is 
called  the 

Diving  Bladder-worm,  Cysticercus  fcnuicollis  or  C.  tcsnia  margina- 
ta.  These  bladders  are  often  free  in  the 
abdomen,  are  sometimes  enclosed  in  the 
fat,  and  sometimes  are  attached  to  the 
liver  and  intestines.  They  are  pear- 
shaped,  and  in  size  from  that  of  a  walnut 
to  that  of  a  hen's  or  even  a  goose's  egg. 
These  bladders  or  cysts,  when  fed  to  a 
dog,  have  produced  the  mature  tcenia 
marginata  upwards  of  three  feet  in  length 
in  the  course  of  three  months.  The  eggs 
of  this  tape-worm  have  been  fed  to  lambs,  and  have  produced  the 
hydatid,  or  bladder-worm,  of  which  hundreds  were  found  hi  the 
abdomen  of  some  of  the  lambs,  which  died  soon  after  receiving 
the  eggs. 

Figure  83  is  a  representation  of  the  Cysticercus  tenuicollis,  with 
the  head  turned  out- 
wards, and  with  the 
head  contained  within 
the  neck  of  the  blad- 
der. Another  of  these 
hydatids  is  the 

Many-headed  Blad- 
der-worm, or  Cysticer- 
cus tcenia  echinococcus. 
— This  finds  a  home 
in  the  lungs  and  liver 
of  the  sheep  and  other 
ruminants,  and  also 
infests  mankind.  Fig- 
ure 84  is  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  liver  and 
lungs  of  an  infected 
sheep.  As  many  as 
several  hundred  cysts 
have  been  taken  from 
one  sheep.  This  is  a 
most  dangerous  para- 
site, for  if  taken  into  the  human  stomach,  it  may  produce  "  bladders" 
in  the  brain,  as  it  actually  has  done  in  well  authenticated  cases, 
which  are  certainly  fatal.  The  cysts  reproduce  themselves  by  a 


INFECTED  WITH  HYDATIDS. 


226 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


species  of  budding,  and  thus  rapidly  increase  and  spread  through 
the  bodies  of  their  bearers.  The  most  common  of  these  hydatids  is 
The  Brain  Bladder-worm,  or  Ccenurus  cerebralis. — This  produces 
the  common  disease  known  as  turnside,  or  giddiness,  in  which  the 
sheep  turns  its  head  to  the  left  or  right,  and  walks  round  and 
round  in  a  circle  in  the  direction  in  which  the  head  is  turned, 
until  it  falls  giddy  and  exhausted.  The  presence  of  this  parasite 
has  been  discovered  in  the  liver  of  our  gray  squirrel,  and  in  rab- 
bits, as  well  as  in  numerous  sheep  in  this  country.  In  the  sheep 
it  is  generally  found  hi  the  brain,  although  it  is  not  peculiar 
to  that  organ.  It  is  only  there,  however,  that  it  produces  the 
usual  disastrous  effects  upon  the  sheep.  Figure  85  represents  the 


Fig.  85. — HYDATID  IN  THE  BRAIN.    Fig.  86. — BRAIN  WITH  FOUR  HYDATIDS 

brain  infested  with  but  one  hydatid  (a) ;  in  figure  86  it  has  four  of 
them  (a,  b,  cy  d).  In  size  they  are  from  that  of  a  pea  up  to  that  of  a 
hen's  egg.  The  hydatid  is  a  bladder  filled  with  a  viscid  fluid,  and 
covered  on  its  outside  surface  with  marks  or  oval  slits.  These 
slits  are  the  spots  to  which  flask-shaped  appendages  are  affixed 
within,  and  are  the  openings  which  lead  to  the  interior  of  these 
appendages.  On  examination  with  a  common  pocket  lens,  a  por- 
tion of  .the  bladder  appears  as  in  figure  87.  The  appendages  are 
the  necks  and  heads  of  the  immature  tape-worms,  each  head  hav- 
ing four  suckers  and  a  series  of  hooks  which  are  characteristic  of 
the  mature  creatures,  and  by  which  they  afterwards  attach  them- 


HYDATIDS  IN  THE  BRAIN.  227 

selves  to  the  coats  of  the  intestines,  while  they  suck  the  juices 
therefrom.  These  heads  increase  by  a  process  of  budding,  and 
often  amount  to  dozens,  and  sometimes  hundreds  hi  number.  The 
pressure  exerted  by  these  bladders  upon  the  brain,  produces  the 
peculiar  symptoms  exhibited,  and  the  act  of  turning  to  one  side  or 
the  other,  helps  to  determine  the  seat  of  the  hydatid  in  the  body 
of  the  brain,  which 
is  found  to  be  on 
that  side  to  which 
the  sheep  turns. 
The  natural  histo- 
ry of  this  parasite 
is  as  follows : 
When  the  head  of 
a  sheep,  containing 

the  bladder-worms  Fi    g^^^g  MAGNIFIEI). 

of  this  species,  is 

devoured  by  a  dog,  the  larvae  are  transformed  within  him  into 
tape-worms.  This  worm  (tcenia  ccenuri^s)  at  maturity,  or  its  eggs, 
being  voided  by  the  dog  upon  the  grass  of  a  pasture,  are  swallowed 
by  the  sheep,  are  hatched  in  its  stomach,  and  penetrate  all  parts 
of  the  body,  perishing  everywhere  except  in  the  brain,  which  is 
its  usual  habitation.  There  they  develop,  remaining  dormant, 
until  chance  favors  their  round  again.  Old  sheep  are  rarely 
affected  by  this  parasite,  the  lambs  suffer  chiefly  from  them.  One 
infested  dog  will  void  thousands  of  eggs  which  not  only  escape 
with  the  dung,  but  being  attached  to  the  anus,  are  carried  about 
and  dropped  in  a  multitude  of  places. 

To  prevent  the  spread  of  this  parasite,  it  is  necessary  only  to 
prevent  the  heads  of  'affected  sheep  from  being  devoured  by  dogs 
or  hogs,  or  to  keep  dogs  from  the  pastures.  The  heads  of  sheep 
dying  from  the  disease  should  therefore  be  burned,  and  not  thrown 
out.  The  treatment  of  sheep  subject  to  the  parasite  consists  in  an 
operation  by  which  the  skull  is  pierced  and  the  bladder  punctured, 
when  the  water  in  it  escapes  and  is  absorbed,  leaving  the  worm  to 
perish.  The  pressure  and  irritation  upon  the  skull  causes  some 
absorption  of  its  substance,  and  a  soft  spot  is  caused  over  the  blad- 
der. This  may  be  easily  felt  by  pressure  of  the  finger.  A  curved 
awl  may  then  be  inserted  through  the  skull  and  the  bladder  pierced ; 
or  by  means  of  a  tubular  saw  (or  trephine),  a  round  piece  of  bone 
is  cut  out  of  the  skull,  a  flap  of  the  skin  first  being  laid  back,  and 
the  bone  being  lifted,  the  bladder  is  laid  bare  and  removed.  The 
skin  is  relaid  and  held  in  place  by  a  stitch  or  plaster,  and  the 


228  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

wound  heals.  No  other  remedy  than  these  is  safe  or  certain,  and 
these  frequently  fail.  This  class  of  parasites  possesses  some 
importance  to  the  shepherd,  not  only  from  the  loss  occasioned 
amongst  his  flock,  but  from  the  danger  of  the  results  to  the 
consumers  of  mutton.  The  farmer's  or  shepherd's  own  dog  may 
be  the  means  of  injury  to  his  flock,  and  he  should  take  means  to 
free  the  dog  from  the  tape-worms  by  means  of  proper  medicines, 
of  which  the  powdered  areca  nut  is  the  most  effective,  as  well  as 
to  prevent  vagrant  dogs  from  stocking  his  pastures. 

The  areca  nut  is  administered  as  follows.  Previously,  one  scru- 
ple of  jalap,  for  a  dog  of  20  to  30  pounds  in  weight,  should  be  ad- 
ministered, and  a  brisk  action  of  the  bowels  set  up.  This  may 
also  be  procured  by  giving  the  dog  a  quantity  of  butter  or  any  of 
the  common  purgatives.  Immediately  afterwards  half  an  ounce 
of  the  powder  of  areca  nut  is  to  be  given  in  pills  or  in  some  ac- 
ceptable food.  Some  locks  of  tangled  wool  dipped  in  grease  or 
melted  fat  are  given  at  the  same  time  to  be  swallowed.  The 
worm  is  killed  or  paralyzed  by  the  areca  nut,  is  entangled  in  the 
wool,  and  all  together  are  expelled  by  the  purge.  The  mass  should 
be  immediately  burned  or  buried  at  a  perfectly  safe  depth  in  the 
ground.  Applied  to  every  dog  at  intervals  of  three  months,  this 
treatment  will  free  them  from  tape- worms,  and  prevent  danger  of 
the  sheep  becoming  infested  with  them. 

Tape-worms,  (tcenia  pUcata),  in  the  intestines.  The  sheep  them- 
selves are  sometimes  infested  with  mature  tape- worms.  This  is 
easily  explained  by  the  possibility  of  the  sheep  swallowing  along 
with  their  pasture  some  of  the  eggs  which  may  have  been  voided 
by  any  of  the  numerous  bearers  of  these  worms,  both  domestica- 
ted and  wild.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  intestinal  tape-worm  is 
very  rare,  if  not  unknown,  in  sheep  in  this  country.  This  would 
seem  to  be  erroneous.  A  correspondent  of  the  National  Live 
Stock  Journal  of  September,  1875,  from  Missouri,  reported  his 
lambs  all  dying  of  a  strange  disease  in  which  the  first  symptom 
was  a  falling  off  in  condition,  followed  by  a  mild  diarrhea.  This 
occurred  in  June,  and  continued  up  to  August,  when  30  out  of  60 
were  dead,  and  nearly  all  the  remainder  were  ailing.  On  exami- 
nation after  death,  the  small  intestines  were  found  "  packed  full 
of  tape-worms."  This  can  hardly  be  a  unique  case,  and  we  may 
very  well  conclude  that  tape-worm  in  the  intestines  is  one  of  the 
parasitical  diseases  that  we  have  to  combat. 

Generally  the  symptoms  developed  by  the  presence  of  tape- 
worms are  voracity  of  appetite,  alternating  with  a  refusal  of  food ; 
loss  of  condition,  desire  to  swallow  earth,  stones,  sand,  or  ashes  ; 


PAKASITES   OF  THE   SKIK.  229 

the  passage  of  soft  dung,  mixed  with  mucus,  which  becomes 
attached  to  the  vent  and  tail,  causing  a  very  filthy  condition ;  and 
the  evidence  of  internal  pain.  The  sheep  finally  dies  greatly  ema- 
ciated. There  is  no  means  of  prevention,  as  the  eggs  may  be 
dropped  by  rabbits,  squirrels,  skunks,  and  other  wild  animals 
which  frequent  the  fields.  The  treatment  most  effective  is  to 
administer  turpentine  as  follows  : 

Linseed-oil 2  ounces. 

Spirits  of  Turpentine Va  to  1  ounce. 

This  should  be  repeated  twice  a  week  for  two  weeks.  If  this 
is  not  effective,  3  ounces  of  the  Powdered  root  of  Male  Fern 
may  be  given.  The  dose  to  be  repeated  in  one  week.  In  six 
hours  after  this  is  administered,  a  purgative  of  linseed-oil  should 
be  given.  The  food  should  be  of  the  best  kind  until  the  lost  con- 
dition is  restored. 

Tape-worms  in  any  of  their  forms  of  life,  affect  only  young  sheep 
and  lambs.  When  sheep  attain  the  age  of  two  years  they  are  safe 
from  them,  and  it  is  very  rare  indeed  that  one  older  than  this  be- 
comes infested  with  them. 

Hair-worms  in  the  Intestines.— jA.  species  of  "  hair-worm"  called 
from  its  peculiar  formation  iricocephalus,  is  not  uncommon  in 
sheep.  It  infests  the  stomach  and  intestines,  causing  obstinate 
diarrhea,  and  rapid  wasting  of  flesh.  These  worms  burrow  their 
heads  into  the  membrane  lining  the  organs,  and  suck  out  the 
juices.  The  irritation  produces  diarrhea,  which  submits  to  no 
treatment  while  they  remain.  A  cough  is  often  present  along 
with  the  diarrhea.  Other  species  of  worms,  of  habits  identical 
with  these,  and  producing  the  same  injurious  effects,  also  infest 
the  sheep,  but  more  particularly  lambs  and  yearlings.  Salt  in  doses 
of  half  an  ounce,  given  on  alternate  days  with  one  dram  doses  of 
sulphate  of  iron,  the  salt  being  given  on  one  day  and  the  iron  the 
next,  is  a  very  sure  remedy  for  this  class  of  parasites,  and  the  dis- 
eases which  result  from  their  presence.  To  counteract  the  debili- 
tating effect  of  these  parasites,  the  food  should  be  of  the  most  nu- 
tritive and  digestible  character,  and  linseed  in  some  shape  should 
not  be  omitted. 

PAKASITES   AND    PARASITIC    DISEASES   OF    THE   SKIN. 

Of  the  epizoa  or  external  parasites  of  the  sheep,  the  most  formid- 
able is  the  Scab  insect,  or  Acarus  scdbiei.  This  is  a  minute  mite 
which  attaches  itself  to  the  skin  and  penetrates  the  surface,  lodg- 
ing itself  in  the  tissues  and  causing  intense  irritation  or  itching, 


230 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


and  the  secretion  of  a  serous  exudation  which  dries  upon  the  sur- 
face and  forms  a  scab.  This  disease  was  well  known  to  ancient 
shepherds,  and  an  exact  description  was  given  by  the  poet  Virgil 
in  his  Georgics.  It  is  mentioned  by  the  historian  Livy,  as  being 
very  virulent  in  his  time.  But  up  to  a  very  recent  date  the  cause 
of  the  disease  was  not  correctly  known.  Youatt's  work  on  the 
sheep,  published  in  1840,  by  the  English  "  Society  for  the  Diffusion 
of  Useful  Knowledge,"  states  it  to  be  caused  by  bad  keep,  starva- 
tion, over-driving,  dogging,  exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  and  other 
causes  of  a  suppression  of  the  perspiration.  He  mentions  the  acari 
as  carriers  of  the  disease,  but  not  as  the  cause.  In  an  attempt  to 
account  for  the  origin  of  the  insect,  he  makes  the  following  re- 
marks, which  in  the  light  of  our  present  knowledge  are  a  curious 
relic  of  the  ignorance  which  existed  40  years  ago,  and  which  has 
not  yet  quite  passed  away.  "  Physiologists  are  beginning  to  ac- 
knowledge the  working  of  a  mysterious  but  noble  principle — the 

springing  up  of  life 
under  new  forms, 
when  the  com- 
ponent principles  of 
previous  beings  are 
decaying,  or  have 
seemingly  perished. 
Thus,  if  we  mace- 
rate any  vegetable 
substance,  the  fluid 
will  teem  with  my- 
riads of  living  be- 
ings, called  into 
existence  by  the 
process  we  are  con- 
ducting, or  rather 
by  that  power  of 
Nature,  or  that  prin- 
ciple which  was  bestowed  by  the  author  of  Nature,  that  life 
ceasing  in  one  form  shall  spring  up  in  others,  and  this  while  the 
creation  lasts.  Thus  we  have  probably  the  hydatid  in  the  brain 
of  the  sheep,  and  the  fluke  in  its  liver ;  parasitical  beings,  which 
we  recognise  in  no  other  form  and  in  no  other  place.  They  were 
the  product  of  the  disease  of  the  part.  In  like  manner  the  acarus 
of  scab  may  be  called  into  existence  by  the  derangements  which 
our  neglect,  or  unavoidable  accident,  or  disease,  may  have  made  in 
the  skin  of  the  sheep.  Scab  may  be,  and  is,  of  spontaneous  ori- 


Fig.  88.— FEMALE   SCAB  INSECT. 


THE   SCAB-MITE.  231 

gin,  as  well  as  the  product  of  contagion  ;  and  the  acarus,  having 
sprung  into  life  within  the  pores  of  the  skin,  obeys  the  laws  of  all 
living  beings  as  to  its  after  existence  and  multiplication." 

It  shows  with  what  caution  speculations  should  be  indulged  in, 
and  how  much  safer  it  is  to  say  "  we  do  not  know,"  than  to  haz- 
ard explanations  which  may  be  wide  of  the  truth  and  misleading. 
It  has  long  been  known  that  the  origin  of  the  existence  of  all  ani- 
mal life  is  an  egg  produced  and  fecundated  by  parents,  and  the 
scab-mite  being  no  exception  to  this  law,  comes  forth  from  an  egg 
and  springs  into  life  just  as  a  chicken  does.  In  both  cases  the  egg 
is  deposited  and  hatched,  and  produces  the  mature  animal.  The 
female  scab  insect,  seen  at  figure  88,  is  larger  than  the  male, 
which  is  shown  at  figure  89,  magnified 
2,500  tunes.  One  male  suffices  for  many 
females,  and  is  longer  lived  than  the 
female.  The  latter  dies  after  producing 
her  eggs,  which  she  deposits  in  the  pores 
of  the  skin,  or  in  the  furrows  of  the  scab 
which  she  has  helped  to  produce.  Her 
eggs  are  numerous,  and  being  hatched  in 
three  days,  her  progeny  increase  rapidly. 
One  female  acarus  can  produce  a  million 
and  a  half  of  progeny  in  90  days.  This 
facility  of  increase  explains  the  rapidity  Fig.  89.— MALE  SCAB 
with  which  the  disease  spreads  through  a 

flock,  and  proves  the  necessity  for  instant  and  energetic  remedies 
or  effective  preventives. 

The  symptoms  first  observed  are  restlessness  and  uneasiness,  and 
the  observant  shepherd  will  have  his  suspicions  aroused  and  search 
for  the  cause  on  the  first  appearance  of  these  symptoms  amongst 
his  flock.  As  the  disease  progresses,  the  sheep  are  found  rubbing 
or  scratching  themselves,  or  biting  or  nibbling  amongst  their 
wool.  The  attention  should  then  be  directed  to  the  parts  rubbed 
or  bitten.  If  scab  is  present,  the  skin  will  be  at  first  white  in 
color  and  of  a  thicker  texture  than  the  rest,  and  moist  or  covered 
with  a  yellow  exudation.  Later  these  parts  are  covered  with  scab 
and  the  wool  falls  off  or  becomes  loose.  If  a  lock  of  this  wool  be 
laid  upon  a  sheet  of  white  paper,  the  mites  will  be  seen  with  the 
unaided  eye,  as  they  crawl  from  it.  If  the  disease  is  neglected, 
the  scabby  spots  enlarge  and  increase  in  number,  the  wool  appears 
ragged  all  over,  and  falls  off  in  patches.  Upon  these  bare  spots 
dense  brown  or  yellow  scales  are  seen,  and  if  the  sheep  can  reach 
a  fence  or  a  post,  the  scabs  are  rubbed  until  they  bleed  and  be- 


232  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

come  sores.    The  condition  of  the  sheep  falls  off  rapidly,  and  it 
becomes  a  wo-begone  object,  such  as  is  shown  in  figure  90. 

The  treatment  is  by  dipping  in  a  liquid  which  penetrates  and 
softens  the  scab  so  that  it  can  be  removed,  and  which  poisons  the 
insect.  There  are  many  preparations  used  for  this  purpose,  some 
of  which  are  objectionable  on  account  of  their  poisonous  proper- 
ties, such  as  mercurial  or  arsenical  compounds,  and  which  are 
no  more  effective  than  the  following  perfectly  safe  one.  This 
consists  of  tobacco  and  sulphur  in  the  proportions  of  four  ounces 
of  the  first,  and  one  of  the  second,  to  the  gallon  of  water.  The 
water  is  brought  to  a  boiling  heat,  and  the  tobacco,  either  coarse 
cheap  leaf  or  stems,  which  are  equally  good,  is  steeped,  (but  not 
boiled),  in  it  until  the  strength  is  exhausted.  The  sulphur  is  then 


Fig.  90. — SHEEP  AFFECTED  WITH  SCAB. 

stirred  in  the  liquid.  When  it  has  become  reduced  in  tempera- 
ture to  120  degrees,  it  is  ready  for  use.  The  sheep  are  entirely 
immersed  in  the  liquid  so  that  the  wool  is  completely  saturated. 
Hard  crusts  of  scab  are  broken  up  and  removed  with  care,  and 
the  raw  surfaces  are  well  washed  with  the  decoction.  The  dip- 
ped animals  should  be  kept  in  a  yard  until  the  wool  no  longer 
drips,  lest  the  pasture  should  be  fouled,  and  the  sheep  sickened  by 
the  tobacco  juice.  After  ten  days  the  dipping  is  repeated  to  de- 
stroy any  newly  hatched  mites.  With  care  the  most  badly  in- 
fected locality  may  be  completely  freed  from  this  pest,  and  it  will 
never  appear  if  the  sheep  are  dipped  twice  each  year  as  a  preven- 
tive. The  gain  in  the  growth  of  wool  and  in  its  improved  quality 
will  more  than  repay  the  cost  of  the  operation.  (See  page  48.) 

The  Sheep  Tick  (MelopTiagus  ovinus),  has  been  already  referred 
to  (page  48) ;  if  the  process  of  dipping,  just  described,  is  regularly 
practiced,  this  parasite  will  be  easily  vanquished,  and  its  annoying 
presence  prevented.  This  insect  propagates  only  by  single  eggs, 
or  rather  the  perfect  pupa  is  expelled  singly  from  the  female, 


THE   SHEEP-TICK. 


233 


which  is  therefore  termed  pupiparous ;  it  does  not,  therefore,  in- 
crease very  fast,  and  is  easily  kept  under.  It  is  too  well  known 
to  need  minute  description,  its  dark 
red,  tough,  leathery-skinned  body  be- 
ing a  most  conspicuous  object,  when 
the  wool  of  almost  any  sheep  in  the 
co  an  try  is  examined.  The  pupa  and 
mature  sheep-tick,  greatly  magnified, 
are  shown  at  figure  91. 
The  Sheep-louse  (Trichodectes 
ovis),  is  known  as  the  red 
sheep-louse.  Its  head  is  of  a 
red  color,  and  the  body  pale 
yellow,  marked  with  dark 


bands.    It  is  found  on  the  side 


SHEEP  LOUSE. 


Fig.  91.  —  SHEEP-TICK  AND  PUPA. 

of  the  neck  of  the  sheep,  and  the  inner  parts  of  the  thighs  and 
arms.  It  causes  much  irritation,  by  which  the  sheep  is  impelled 
to  thrust  its  head  between  the  bars  of  gates  or 
fences,  or  to  kick  and  stamp  with  its  legs.  Oc- 
casionally sheep  are  found  strangled  by  becoming 
fixed  in  their  attempts  to  rub  their  necks,  or  with 
their  legs  broken  in  attempts  to  rub  them  upon  rails. 
Lice  are  rarely  found  on  the  yolky  wooled  sheep,  but 
on  the  drier  fleeced  breeds  they  often  cause  much 
unsuspected  mischief.  Those  sheep  which  are  regu- 
92-  larly  dipped,  are  also  free  from  this  pest.  To  rub 
parts  mentioned  with  the  following  preparations 
is  generally  an  easy  remedy. 

Lard  ............................................  1  pound. 

Flowers  of  Sulphur  ...............................  2  ounces. 

Creasote  .........................................  20  drops. 

one  pint  of  sweet  oil  may  be  substituted  for  the  lard.  This  louse 
is  small,  and  the  illustration,  figure  92,  is  of  one  highly  magnified. 
The  Sheep  Gad  Fly  ((Estrus  oms).  —  T^his  is  a  most  troublesome 
pest,  causing  much  discomfort  to  the  sheep.  It  is  a  fly  with  two 
wings  spreading  over  one  inch,  and  a  stout  body  over  half  an  inch 
in  length.  In  the  summer  months  they  disturb  the  sheep  in  the 
pastures  by  the  efforts  they  make  to  deposit  their  eggs  upon  the 
animal's  nostrils.  When  they  succeed  in  their  efforts,  the  sheep 
often  becomes  half  frantic,  and  races  violently  over  the  pasture, 
sometimes  seriously  injuring  itself  by  becoming  overheated. 
Where  the  fly  abounds,  the  sheep  crowd  together  and  stop  feed- 
ing, holding  their  noses  to  the  ground,  and  stamping  with  their 


234  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL.  . 

fore  feet.  The  grub,  when  hatched  from  the  egg,  crawls  up  the 
nostril,  and  lodges  in  the  sinuses  of  the  head,  where  it  remains 
feeding  upon  the  mucus  secreted  by  the  membranes,  until  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  In  entering  the  nostrils  and  in  leaving  them,  they 
cause  much  irritation  to  the  sheep.  The  remedy  lies  in  prevent- 
ing the  fly  from  laying  its  eggs,  and  this  is  done  by  smearing  the 
nostrils  of  the  sheep  with  tar,  diluted  with  grease  or  butter.  This 
is  both  distasteful  to  the  fly  and  fatal  to  the  egg.  By  preparing  a 
pailful  of  the  mixture,  and  smearing  the  noses  of  the  sheep  with  a 
brush,  as  they  pass  one  by  one  through  a  half  opened  gate,  every 
morning  during  fly  time  (July  and  August),  the  sheep  will  be 
spared  much  annoyance.  When  grubs  are  crawling  clown  the 
nostril  early  in  spring,  they  may  be  quickly  dislodged  by  blowing 
tobacco  smoke  into  the  nose  through  a  pipe. 

The  Maggot,  so  called,  is  a  formidable  enemy  of  the  sheep.  It 
Is  the  larvae  of  the  common  flesh  fly  (Sarcophaga  carnaria),  the 
blue-bottle  fly  (musca  Ccesar),  and  the  meat  fly  (musca  vomitoria), 
all  of  which  deposit  their  eggs  or  living  larvae  upon  decaying  ani- 
mal matter.  When  sheep  are  wounded  by  accident,  or  are  allowed 
to  become  filthy  when  troubled  with  diarrhea,  these  eggs  or  larvae 
are  deposited  in  vast  numbers  ;  the  ovaries  of  a  single  Sarcopha- 
gus having  been  found  to  contain  20,000  eggs.  The  maggots  soon 
become  active,  and  spreading  from  their  quarters,  attack  the  skin, 
which  they  irritate  and  cause  to  secrete  a  serous  fluid.  In  time 
the  skin  is  pierced,  and  the  flesh  suppurates  and  wastes  away, 
being  devoured  by  the  multitude  of  maggots  which  crawl  upon  it. 
In  wet  seasons  the  mischief  is  greatly  increased.  To  prevent  them 
it  is  necessary  to  carefully  remove  the  wool  from  about  the  tail  so 
that  filth  may  not  gather ;  to  watch  for  any  accidental  wound ;  and 
in  warm  wet  weather,  for  any  dirty  tags  of  wool  upon  which  the 
flies  may  deposit  eggs.  In  case  any  maggots  are  found,  there  is 
no  better  application  than  common  crude  petroleum,  or  whale-oil, 
both  of  which  are  repulsive  and  fatal  to  fly  and  maggot.  A  sheep 
that  is  "  struck  "  with  maggots  will  remain  separate  from  the  flock, 
and  may  be  lost  sight  of  unless  the  flock  is  counted  at  least  once 
a  day,  and  the  straggler  found.  Weaning  time,  when  the  ewes 
may  suffer  from  caked  udder,  is  an  especially  critical  period,  and 
then  extra  watchfulness  is  called  for. 

DISEASES   OF   THE    FEET. 

Sheep  are  subject  to  many  disorders  of  the  feet.  The  structure 
of  the  sheep's  foot  is  different  from  that  of  the  horse.  It  possesses 


CONTAGIOUS   FOOT-ROT.  235 

no  laminae  which  connect  the  outer  crust  or  horn  with  the  sensi- 
tive parts  within,  but  the  crust  is  connected  with  the  bone  by  a 
vascular  structure,  by  which  it  is  also  secreted.  The  growth  of 
the  hoof  of  the  sheep  is  not  from  the  coronet  downwards,  as  in 
the  horse,  but  from  the  whole  inner  secreting  surface.  In  this  lies 
both  the  weakness  of  the  sheep's  foot,  and  the  rapidity  with  which 
repairs  are  made,  when  it  is  injured  or  diseased.  The  wall  or 
crust  surrounds  the  outside  of  the  foot,  and  turns  under  at  the 
edge  of  the  sole  and  toe,  and  it  is  impossible  to  distingush  where 
the  crust  ends,  and  the  sole  begins,  both  being  so  much  alike  in 
structure.  The  crust  is  harder  and  tougher  than  the  sole,  which 
is  soft  and  elastic,  like  India  rubber.  As  the  toot  wears  down  by 
contact  with  the  ground,  the  crust  is  worn  off  to  a  sharp  edge  upon 
the  outer  margin ;  when  the  wear  and  growth  balance  each  other, 
the  foot  is  in  perfect  condition  ;  but  when  either  is  greater  than 
the  other,  the  conditions  of  disease  are  at  once  established,  and 
unless  removed  by  proper  treatment,  lameness  occurs. 

Another  peculiarity  of  the  sheep's  foot  is  the  interdigital  canal, 
which  commences  in  a  small  opening  about  one  inch  above 
the  foot,  passes  downwards  and  backwards  between  the  toes 
and  ends  in  a  pouch  which  is  curved  upwards  upon  itself. 
The  canal  is  covered  with  hair,  and  is  studded  with  glands  which 
secrete  an  oily  fluid.  This  fluid  overflows  at  the  opening,  and 
moistens  the  skin  between  the  toes,  preventing  chafing  and  sore- 
ness. The  peculiar  structure  of  the  foot  of  the  shesp,  under  unfa- 
vorable circumstances,  gives  occasion  to  several  serious  diseases. 
Of  these  the  most  frequent  and  important  is 

Foot-rot. — This  disease  is  contagious,  and  may  spread  through 
the  flock,  if  preventive  measures  are  not  taken.  It  consists  of  an 
inflammation  of  the  whole  hoof,  the  formation  of  blisters  upon 
the  heels  and  between  the  toes,  which  break  and  form  discharging 
surfaces,  and  in  a  few  days,  ulcers,  which  suppurate  and  excrete 
fetid  matter.  The  fore  feet  are  the  most  usually  affected.  When 
this  happens  the  sheep  may  be  observed  to  go  around  feeding 
painfully  upon  their  knees.  If  no  attention  is  given,  the  hoof  is 
lost  in  course  of  time,  and  a  wounded  stump  only  is  left.  It  is 
caused  at  first  by  wet  pastures  in  which  the  feet  become  foul,  the 
horn  becomes  detached  under  the  sole,  and  harbors  filth  which 
softens  the  sole,  and  influences  the  vascular  tissue  beneath  it. 
Neglect  completes  the  conditions  under  which  the  disease  oc- 
curs. The  treatment  should  be  immediate  on  the  appearance  of 
the  first  lameness,  for  when  the  ulcerative  stage  has  arrived,  the 
cure  is  long  and  difficult,  the  whole  condition  of  the  animal  being 


236  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

involved.  As  soon  as  lameness  is  perceived,  the  sheep  should  be 
examined.  All  raw,  loose,  or  diseased  horn  should  be  cut  away 
with  a  sharp  knife ;  any  excessive  growth  of  horn  at  the  toes 
should  be  removed,  and  if  any  pus  or  matter  is  found  beneath  the 
horn,  that  should  be  pared  away  until  it  is  all  exposed.  The  feet 
should  then  be  washed  clean  with  carbolic  soap  and  water  twice  a 
week,  and  after  each  washing  a  piece  of  tow  or  lint  dipped  into 
'  the  following  mixture  should  be  bound  on  the  foot  and  between 
the  digits,  viz : 

Oxide  of  Copper 4  ounces. 

Arsenic Va    " 

Acetic  Acid 3      " 

Honey 8      " 

Or  the  foot  may  be  thoroughly  smeared  with  the  following  oint- 
ment, viz : 

Finely  Powdered  Blue  Vitriol 1  pound. 

Verdigris Va    " 

Linseed-oil 1  pint. 

Pine  Tar 1  quart. 

This  will  dry  on  the  foot  and  will  not  be  washed  off  by  the  wet 
grass  as  a  solution  would  be. 

The  following  remedy  is  in  general  use  amongst  French  and 
German  shepherds : 

Chloride  of  Mercury  (Corrosive  Sublimate) 15  grains. 

Acetate  of  Copper 30 

Sulphate  of  Zinc. . .  30 


Acetate  of  Copper 30 

Sulphate  of  Zinc 30 

Hydro-chloric  Acid  (muriatic) 2  drams. 


Water 2  ounces. 

The  diseased  parts  to  be  touched  daily  with  a  feather  dipped  in 
the  above  solution.  In  case  the  disease  has  made  considerable 
progress,  and  the  sheep  are  found  feverish  and  generally  ailing, 
each  sick  one  should  receive,  according  to  circumstances,  a  dose 
of  one  to  two  ounces  of  Epsom  salts  dissolved  in  half  a  pint  of 
water.  At  the  expiration  of  two  days  the  following  should  be 
given,  viz : 

Nitrate  of  Potash Va  ounce. 

Flowers  of  Sulphur %      " 

mixed  with  molasses  and  placed  on  the  tongue  until  swallowed. 
This  may  be  repeated  once  a  week  until  the  feet  are  well. 

When  the  disease  becomes  virulent,  the  foot  is  swollen,  sinuses 
are  formed,  and  ulceration  progresses  until  the  whole  foot  is 
deeply  involved,  and  the  sheep  fails  to  eat,  loses  flesh,  and  is  in  a 
condition  of  fever  from  blood  poisoning  by  the  absorbed  matter. 


COMMON  FOOT-EOT.  237 

The  case  is  then  often  unmanageable  except  at  greater  cost  than 
the  value  of  the  sheep.  Fortunately  such  a  termination  rarely 
occurs,  unless  through  great  neglect  or  the  most  unskillful  man- 
agement. In  such  a  case  the  foot  should  be  washed,  the  loose  and 
separated  horn  removed  with  care,  and  the  foot  poulticed  with  a 
warm  carrot  or  turnip  poultice  twice  a  day  for  three  days,  and  the 
following  should  be  administered  at  once  : 

Epsom  Salts 2  ounces. 

Laudanum 1  dram. 

After  the  feet  have  been  cleaned  by  the  poultice,  the  treatment 
before  mentioned  should  be  continued  until  recovery  is  made. 
The  patient  being  unable  to  move  without  great  pain,  should  be 
kept  in  a  pen  with  a  clean  floor  free  from  straw  or  chaff,  or  any- 
thing that  would  irritate  the  foot  or  convey  infection  elsewhere. 

A  method  recommended  by  the  Hon.  H.  S.  Kandall,  who  has 
successfully  treated  many  of  his  own  flock  in  this  manner,  is  to 
procure  a  large  tub  or  trough  in  which  three  sheep  can  stand  at 
one  tune,  and  to  pour  into  this  tub  a  hot  saturated  solution  of  blue 
vitriol  (sulphate  of  copper),  until  it  is  four  niches  deep.  The 
sheep  having  had  their  feet  washed,  and  all  loose  horn  pared  off, 
are  placed  in  the  tub  on  their  feet  and  held  there  by  an  assistant. 
The  first  sheep  is  kept  in  the  foot-bath  until  the  fourth  is  ready  to 
go  in,  when  it  is  taken  out ;  when  the  fifth  goes  in,  the  second  is 
turned  out.  Thus  each  sheep  remains  in  the  bath  about  ten  min- 
utes, giving  time  for  the  solution  to  penetrate  every  part  of  the 
diseased  hoof.  After  the  bath,  the  sheep  are  kept  in  a  dry  grass 
field.  One  application  of  this  remedy  served  in  every  case,  to 
make  a  complete  cure.  This  troublesome  disease  is  rarely  known 
in  this  country  upon  dry  pasture,  and  generally  yields  at  once  to  a 
simple  paring  of  the  feet  and  shortening  of  the  overgrown  toes,  a 
cleansing  from  all  filth  or  irritating  matter,  and  a  dressing  with  an 
astringent  ointment  such  as  the  first  above  mentioned. 

Common  Foot-rot  or  Gravel,  is  not  contagious,  and  being  the  re- 
sult of  accidental  circumstances,  is  cured  by  their  removal,  together 
with  simple  auxiliary  treatment.  It  consists  of  an  inflammation 
of  the  internal  parts  of  the  foot,  the  formation  of  matter,  its  escape 
at  the  top  of  the  hoof,  the  separation  of  the  horn  or  crust  from 
the  diseased  parts,  and  as  a  matter  of  course,  extreme  lameness. 
It  is  caused  by  an  excessive  wear  of  the  crust  of  the  hoof  upon 
stony,  gravely  pastures,  or  by  excessive  growth  of  the  crust  or 
toe,  in  low  moist  meadows.  In  either  case,  foreign  matter  enters 
between  the  crust  and  the  sole,  and  pressing  upon  the  sensitive 


238  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

parts  beneath,  causes  inflammation,  which  not  being  at  once  rem- 
edied, increases  with  the  above  results.  The  means  of  prevention 
are  obvious. 

The  treatment  consists  in  removing  the  offending  matter  with 
great  care  and  tenderness  by  means  of  the  knife  or  a  small  probe, 
as  a  knitting  needle  or  wire,  cleansing  the  foot,  and  washing  it  in 
astringent  and  antiseptic  solutions,  such  as  the  following : 

Chloride  of  Zinc 1  ounce. 

Water 1  quart. 

sulphate  of  copper  or  sugar  of  lead  may  be  substituted  for  the 
chloride  of  zinc.  In  very  bad  cases  the  treatment  for  malignant 
foot-rot  should  be  adopted.  Removal  from  wet  pastures  is  neces- 
sary to  a  cure,  and  for  some  tune  afterwards,  or  the  trouble  will 
quickly  recur. 

Epizootic  aphtha  (foot-and-mouth  disease),  is  highly  contagious, 
and  will  rapidly  spread  through  a  flock.  It  affects  the  feet  as  well 
as  the  lips  and  tongue.  The  treatment  has  been  already  described 
in  this  chapter. 

Inflammation  of  tJie  Interdigital  Canal. — This  is  of  frequent 
occurrence  when  sheep  are  driven  upon  sandy  or  dusty  roads,  are 
pastured  on  sandy  lands,  or  are  permitted  to  lie  in  muddy  yards. 
Offending  matter  enters  the  canal  and  causes  inflammation,  which 
spreads  to  the  interior  of  the  foot,  and  results  hi  swelling  and  great 
tenderness.  Removal  of  the  irritating  matter  by  means  of  a  small 
probe  or  the  trimmed  end  of  a  feather  dipped  hi  oil,  and  bathing 
the  foot  in  warm  water  and  vinegar,  are  generally  sufficient  to  re- 
move the  trouble.  When  sheep  become  lame,  and  the  foot  is 
found  hot,  with  no  sign  of  outward  cause,  this  may  be  at  once 
suspected. 

Canker  of  ihe  foot  is  a  very  obstinate  disease.  It  consists  of  in- 
flammation of  the  sole  of  the  foot,  which  gives  way  to  a  growth 
of  spongy  sprouts  instead  of  the  natural  hoof,  and  a  discharge  of 
white  curdy  matter  which  has  a  most  offensive  odor.  It  is  a  simi- 
lar disease  to  thrush  or  canker  of  the  frog  in  horses.  The  most 
frequent  causes  are  folding  the  sheep  in  yards  or  sheds,  where  the 
dung  is  allowed  to  collect  in  a  mass  which  ferments  and  heats,  and 
from  neglected  cases  of  common  foot-rot  or  inflammation  of  the 
interdigital  canal. 

The  treatment  consists  of  the  removal  of  all  the  separated  hoof 
at  the  first  and  every  future  dressing,  along  with  any  that  may 
appear  sound,  but  has  dead  offensive  matter  beneath  it.  The  foot 
should  then  be  washed  in  a  solution  of  one  dram  of  chloride  of 


DISEASES  INCIDENT  TO   LAMBING.  239 

zinc  in  a  pint  of  water,  and  a  pledget  of  tow  or  lint  dipped  in  a 
mixture  of  one  part  of  common  (not  fuming)  nitric  acid  with 
three  parts  of  water,  should  be  applied  to  the  whole  of  the  cank- 
ered surface.  This  should  be  repeated  frequently,  until  a  cure  is 
made. 

LAMBING   AND   DISEASES  CONNECTED    WITH   IT. 

The  number  of  lambs  raised  in  proportion  to  those  that  are 
dropped  is  far  less  than  it  ought  to  be.  Probably  ten  per  cent  of 
the  lambs  annually  dropped,  are  lost  through  negligence  or  want 
of  simple  methods  of  protection.  Many  are  lost  through  neglect 
of  the  condition  of  the  ewes.  The  lambing  season  is  one  that  calls 
for  great  patience  on  the  part  of  the  shepherd,  rather  than  for 
great  skill.  A  well  disciplined  flock,  well  provided  with  shelter 
and  quiet  retreats  for  the  ewes,  will  raise  a  larger  proportion  of 
lambs  than  a  neglected  one.  Dogs  about  a  flock  at  lambing  time 
are  an  unmitigated  nuisance,  and  cause  many  losses.  When  the 
lambs  begin  to  drop  it  is  not  difficult  to  discover  those  ewes  that 
will  come  in,  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  parts  become  red  and 
swollen,  and  the  udder  swells  and  fills^  It  is  at  this  period  that 
the  ewes  need  close  watching,  both  to  discover  anything  that  may 
go  wrong,  and  to  render  assistance  when  it  is  needed.  If  the  ewes 
have  been  carefully  tended,  there  is  rarelv  any  difficulty  encoun- 
tered that  may  not  be  overcome  by  simple  measures,  yet  amongst 
the  most  carefully  tended  flocks  there  will  be  some  occasional 
cases  which  will  call  for  the  treatment  herein  described  as  ap- 
plicable to  the  disorders  mentioned. 

There  is  rarely  any  necessity  for  manual  assistance  to  the  ewes 
at  lambing  time.  Sometimes  in  cases  of  protracted  labor  it  will 
be  necessary  for  the  shepherd  to  ascertain  if  the  lamb  is  in  proper 
position,  with  the  fore  feet  and  head  first ;  if  it  is,  the  ewe  may  be 
left  alone  with  safetv.  If  the  position  is  unnatural,  help  should 
be  given  by  an  experienced  shepherd.  If  no  aid  can  be  obtained, 
it  is  dangerous  for  an  inexperienced  person  to  assist,  lest  he  may 
be  too  hasty  and  rough  in  his  help.  If  the  lamb  is  presented  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  cannot  be  expelled,  it  should  be  gently 
forced  back  again  by  some  person  with  a  small  hand,  the  hand 
being  smeared  with  sweet-oil.  It  should  then  be  gently  brought 
into  such  a  position  that  the  feet  shall  be  presented  first,  with  the 
head  lying  upon  them,  and  not  doubled  back.  If  the  hind  parts 
are  presented,  the  feet  should  be  gently  brought  up  after  the  lamb 


has  been  pushed  back.  If  the  placenta  or  after-birth  has  not 
come  away  in  due  season,  it  may  be  gently  pulled  by  the  hand, 
when  it  will  be  generally  expelled  in  a  short  time.  If  the  ewe  is 
weak,  a  little  warm  gruel,  sweetened  and  flavored  with  ginger, 
may  be  fed  with  a  spoon  or  given  with  a  horn.  It  is  the  poor,  lean, 
badly  kept  ewes  which,  suffer  most  in  lambing  ;  those  in  good  condi- 
tion, or  even  fat,  rarely  experience  any  difficulty. 

Parturient  Fever  rarely  attacks  our  native  sheep,  but  imported 
sheep  are  sometimes  subject  to  it.  It  generally  occurs  within  a 
few  days  of  lambing.  The  first  symptoms  are  refusal  of  food, 
twitching  of  the  hind  legs  and  ears,  dullness  and  stupidity;  the 
head  is  carried  down,  the  eyes  are  half  closed,  and  a  dark  colored 
discharge  flows  from  the  vagina.  If  the  lamb  is  now  dropped  it 
is  dead,  but  the  ewe,  if  kept  quiet  and  well  nursed,  will  generally 
recover  in  two  or  three  days.  But  if  the  lamb  is  not  then  expelled, 
the  symptoms  grow  worse,  the  ewe  suffers  from  fever,  and  moans 
with  pain,  and  the  discharge  is  very  offensive.  The  lamb,  if  ex- 
pelled at  this  stage,  is  in  a  high  state  of  putrefaction,  and  the  ewe 
falls  into  a  condition  of  collapse,  from  which  she  rarely  recovers. 
If  the  lamb  is  not  expelled,  the  ewe  dies. 

The  treatment  should  consist  of  the  removal  of  the  ewe  from 
the  flock  to  a  quiet  pen,  on  the  first  appearance  of  sickness.  She 
should -be  well  cared  for,  and  fed  with  warm  gruel  of  linseed  or 
oat-meal.  As  soon  as  the  dark  colored  discharge  occurs,  the  lamb 
is  almost  certainly  dead,  and  beginning  to  decompose,  and  its  re- 
moval is  necessary.  The  vagina  should  be  washed  with  warm 
water,  and  the  finger,  smeared  with  the  extract  of  belladonna, 
should  be  introduced  into  the  passage  every  three  hours  until  it  is 
sufficiently  dilated  to  allow  of  the  expulsion  of  the  lamb.  Two 
tablespoonfuls  of  the  following  medicine  should  be  given  twice  a 
day,  viz : 

Calomel ' 8  grains. 

Extract  of  Hyoscyamus 1  dram. 

Linseed  Tea Va  pint. 

At  the  same  time  a  quarter  of  a  pint  of  the  following  should  be 
given  alternately  with  the  above : 

Epsom  Salts 8  ounces. 

Nitrate  of  Potash Va    " 

Carbonate  of  Soda 2      " 

Water 1  pint. 

The  above  mixtures  should  be  shaken  up  before  giving  them. 


GARGET. 

After  the  bowels  have  been  operated  upon,  these  mixtures  are 
omitted,  and  the  following  given : 

Nitrate  of  Potash Va  ounce. 

Carbonate  of  Soda 1  . 

Camphor 1  dram. 

Gum  Water ". 8  ounces. 

An  eighth  of  a  pint  to  be  given  twice  a  day.  The  ewe  should  be 
fed  chiefly  upon  thin  oat-meal  gruel  and  milk,  or  infusion  of  lin- 
seed. After  the  lamb  has  been  expelled,  the  uterus  should  be  in- 
jected with  warm  milk  and  water,  or  if  there  is  a  very  offensive 
discharge,  one  dram  of  chloride  of  lime  dissolved  hi  a  pint  of 
warm  water,  should  be  injected  instead  of  the  milk  and  water. 

Abortion.— This  disease  is  not  frequent  amongst  sheep,  and 
when  it  occurs  can  almost  always  be  traced  to  the  excessive  use  of 
roots  in  cold  weather,  when  the  ewe  is  heavy  with  lamb.  It  has 
also  been  known  to  occur  in  consequence  of,  or  after,  the  heavy 
dressing  of  turnip  or  mangel  land  with  superphosphate,  the  crop 
having  been  fed  to  the  ewes,  but  this  is  probably  in  consequence 
of  the  greater  succulence  of  the  roots  so  grown,  rather  than  the 
direct  action  of  the  phosphate.  The  distension  of  the  stomach 
with  cold,  watery  food,  so  greatly  reduces  the  temperature  of  the 
abdominal  viscera  as  to  destroy  the  life  of  the  foetus,  which  is  pre- 
maturely expelled,  with  all  the  disagreeable  consequences  to  the 
ewe  described  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  Chasing  by  dogs  is  a 
very  frequent  cause. 

The  treatment  is  preventive  and  alleviative.  Caution  in  feeding 
roots  to  in-lamb  ewes  in  any  but  small  quantities,  or  in  avoiding 
fright,  excessive  exertion,  and  worrying,  will  prevent  its  occur- 
rence. When  it  has  happened,  the  following  may  be  given  with 
some  nourishing  liquid  food,  viz : 

Epsom  Salts i/a  ounce. 

Laudanum 1  dram. 

Powdered  Camphor ." i/a  " 

The  latter  two  only  may  be  repeated  the  second  day. 

Garget. — This  disease  consists  of  inflammation  of  the  udder  or 
milk  glands.  It  rarely  occurs,  except  in  those  ewes  which  have 
lost  their  young  and  are  not  supplied  with  foster  lambs,  or  when 
the  teats  are  not  opened  readily  by  the  new-born  lamb ;  or  at 
weaning  time.  If  the  ewe  is  in  good  condition,  and  has  a  large 
flow  of  milk,  which  is  not  drawn  off,  the  udder  becomes  gorged, 
inflamed,  and  finally  festers  and  suppurates.  In  this  way  some 
ewes  may  lose  part  or  the  whole  of  the  udder,  and  their  useful- 
ness as  breeders  be  destroyed.  It  is  also  occasioned  by  allowing 
11 


•242  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

a  nursing  ewe  to  lie  in  the  wet  and  cold  in  the  pasture  or  the 
yards.  In  the  summer  time,  when  lambs  are  taken  from  the  ewes 
and  sent  to  market,  a  ewe  may  become  gargeted,  and  if  neglected, 
may  become  a  victim  to  myriads  of  maggots  which  will  breed  in  the 
festering  udder.  Ewes  are  thus  lost  occasionally.  It  is  obvious  that 
prevention  will  be  most  effective.  When  garget  has  occurred,  the 
Treatment  is  to  give  a  purgative  and  diuretic  to  reduce  the  flow 
of  milk  and  any  fever  that  may  exist.  This  may  be  the  following : 

Epsom  Salts 2  ounces. 

Nitrate  of  Potash. 2  drams. 

Ginger 1     " 

to  be  given  in  water,  and  repeated  in  twenty-four  hours.  The 
udder  should  be  bathed  in  warm  water,  and  a  solution  of  carbon- 
ate of  soda  be  injected  into  the  teats  by  a  small  metal  syringe,  and 
afterwards  milked  out.  The  disease  may  result  in  the  permanent 
injury  of  the  udder,  or  the  closing  of  one  or  both  of  the  teats,  in 
which  case  the  ewe  should  be  discarded  as  a  breeder. 

Inversion  of  tlie  Uterus  may  occur  in  cases  of  severe  labor, 
when  the  ewe  is  weak.  The  womb  is  turned  inside  out,  and  pro- 
trudes from  the  body  as  a  red  bladder.  From  ignorance  this  is 
sometimes  cut  off,  and  the  ewe  destroyed.  The  parts  should  be 
gently  washed  in  warm  water  and  cleansed  from  all  foreign  mat- 
ter. The  ewe  should  then  be  held  so  that  the  hinder  parts  are 
raised,  and  with  a  small  hand  well  greased  with  sweet-oil,  or  pure 
fresh  lard,  the  womb  should  be  returned,  gently  working  it  into 
its  natural  position  by  the  thumbs  or  fingers.  The  finger  nails 
should  be  closely  pared,  lest  they  may  wound  the  tender  parts. 
A  needle  with  a  strong  linen  thread  or  fine  catgut,  should  then  be 
passed  through  the  skin  upon  both  sides  of  the  vagina,  and  tied 
so  as  to  form  a  loop  across  it  which  will  prevent  the  uterus  from 
again  protruding ;  20  to  30  drops  of  tincture  of  opium  should  be 
given  in  some  warm  gruel,  and  the  ewe  left  to  rest  upon  a  soft  bed 
in  perfect  quiet  with  her  hind  parts  raised  above  the  level  of  her 
head,  for  several  days. 

SPECIAL   DISEASES,    OPERATIONS,    AND   ACCIDENTS. 

Ophthalmia. — This  is  a  disease  of  the  eye  frequently  caused  by 
cold,  or  by  grazing  in  stubble  fields,  when  the  straws  of  the  stub- 
ble will  occasionally  wound  the  eyes.  It  is  perceived  at  once  by 
the  tenderness  and  redness  of  the  organ,  a  flow  of  tears,  and  a 
discharge  of  pus  from  the  corner  of  the  eye.  It  is  readily  cured 


CASTRATION   OF   RAMS.  243 

by  washing  the  eye  with  a  solution  of  four  grains  of  sulphate  of 
zinc  in  an  ounce  of  warm  water,  and  keeping  the  sheep  in  a  dark 
stable  for  a  day  or  two.  If  the  eye  is  seriously  inflamed,  and  the 
sheep  distressed  with  pain,  give  a  dose  of  an  ounce  of  Epsom  salts 
dissolved  in  water,  and  twenty  drops  of  laudanum  may  be  added 
to  the  zinc  solution  above  mentioned  with  good  effect. 

Castration. — This  necessary  operation  should  be  performed  as 
early  as  possible,  as  there  is  less  danger  of  evil  effects  following  it 
than  when  the  lamb  is  older.  The  lining  membrane  of  the  scro- 
tum is  a  continuation  of  that  of  the  abdomen,  and  when  inflam- 
mation follows  the  operation,  it  is  readily  communicated  to  the 
abdomen,  and  peritonitis  or  inflammation  of  the  membrane  lining 
the  cavity  and  enveloping  the  bowels  results,  and  this  is  generally 
fatal.  A  lamb  a  week  old  may  be  deprived  of  the  whole  scrotum 
and  testicles,  by  one  stroke  of  a  pair  of  shears,  without  any  danger 
or  the  loss  of  more  than  a  few  drops  of  blood.  But  when  the 
lamb  has  become  spme  months  old,  the  organ  has  become  fully 
developed  as  to  nerves  and  vessels,  and  a  more  careful  operation 
must  be  performed.  An  excellent  method  is  for  the  operator  to 
sit  upon  a  long  bench,  with  one  of  the  lamb's  hind  legs  beneath 
each  of  his  thighs,  the  head  and  fore  legs  being  held  by  an  assist- 
ant. Taking  the  scrotum  in  the  left  hand,  he  presses  the  testicles 
towards  the  lower  end,  making  the  skin  tight  and  smooth.  He 
then  makes  a  free  incision  with  a  sharp  knife  at  the  bottom  of 
the  scrotum  beneath  each  testicle;  the  membranes  which  sur- 
round them  are  cut  through,  the  cords  and  vessels  which  are  at- 
tached to  them,  are  scraped,  not  cut  asunder,  and  the  operation  is 
completed.  To  castrate  a  mature  ram,  an  incision  is  made  at  the 
bottom  of  each  compartment  of  the  scrotum,  each  testicle  being 
removed  separately,  the  cords  and  vessels  being  always  scraped 
asunder.  The  main  point  to  secure  is,  to  have  the  wound  at  the 
bottom  of  the  scrotum,  so  as  to  allow  the  pus,  which  will  form 
within  it,  to  escape.  If  this  pus  is  retained  hi  the  wound,  it 
becomes  absorbed,  inflammation  is  communicated  to  the  adjacent 
parts,  and  a  fatal  termination  is  likely  to  ensue.  To  prevent 
this,  a  small  lock  of  wool  is  sometimes  left  in  the  wound,  by 
which  it  is  kept  open  and  the  danger  averted. 

DocMng.—  This  operation  should  be  performed  on  all  the  lambs 
when  a  week  or  two  old.  It  is  then  but  slightly  painf  ul.  The 
best  method  is  to  take  the  lamb  between  the  knees,  holding  its 
rump  closely  against  a  block  of  wood.  Then  drawing  the  skin  of 
the  tail  towards  the  rump,  with  the  ringers  of  the  left  hand,  a 


244  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

sharp  chisel  is  held  by  the  right  hand  upon  the  tail,  below  the 
fingers,  and  two  inches  from  the  rump ;  a  boy  gives  the  chisel  a 
smart  rap  with  a  light  mallet,  and  the  tail  is  severed  at  one  stroke 
with  a  smooth  cut  which  leaves  the  bone  in  a  good  condition  to 
heal  quickly.  A  p"inch  of  powdered  copperas  may  be  placed  on 
the  stump  of  the  tail  to  stanch  any  bleeding,  and  to  keep  off  flies. 

Fractures  of  the  limbs  sometimes  occur  through  neglect  to  let 
down  bars  when  sheep  are  entering  or  leaving  a  fold  or  field,  or 
through  other  accidents.  These  are  easily  repaired  by  bringing 
the  broken  ends  of  the  bone  together  in  the  proper  position,  and 
binding  the  limbs  in  splints  of  wood.  The  splints  should  be 
wrapped  with  strips  of  cloth  to  prevent  them  from  chafing  the 
limbs,  and  the  bandage  should  be  made  secure,  but  not  so  tight  as 
to  interfere  with  the  circulation.  The  bandage  should  be  worn  three 
or  four  weeks,  and  if  occasionally  examined,  there  will  be  no  need 
to  shut  up  the  patient  from  the  rest  of  the  flock.  An  excellent 
splint  is  made  by  soaking  coarse  brown  paper  in  water  and  wrap- 
ping it  around  the  broken  limb  and  then  binding  it  with  bandages 
of  muslin.  When  the  paper  dries  a  very  firm  support  is  given  if 
sufficient  is  used. 

Wounds,  either  punctured,  incised,  or  lacerated,  may  occur  from 
a  variety  of  causes.  When  a  sheep  is  wounded,  the  first  thing  to 
be  done  is  to  wash  the  wound  with  a  soft  cloth  or  sponge  and 
warm  water.  If  blood  flows  freely  from  an  important  artery,  and 
it  cannot  be  stanched  by  the  use  of  brown  sugar  or  powdered  cop- 
peras, the  bleeding  end  of  the  artery  should  be  sought,  and  twisted 
two  or  three  times,  which  will  usually  stop  the  flow.  A  sheep 
will  rarely  bleed  to  death,  except  from  a  wound  which  severs  the 
arteries  or  veins  of  the  throat.  It  may  faint  from  loss  of  blood, 
and  the  flow  may  then,  or  soon  afterwards,  stop.  If  the  wound 
is  a  clean  cut  with  smooth  edges,  it  should  be  closed,  the 
wool  being  clipped  around  it,  and  two  or  more  stitches  taken 
through  the  skin  at  the  edges,  by  which  they  may  be  kept  together. 
The  stitch  should  be  passed  through  the  skin  in  two  places  directly 
opposite  each  other  on  either  side  of  the  wound ;  the  thread 
should  then  be  tied  tightly  enough  to  keep  the  edges  in  contact, 
but  no  more,  and  tire  ends  cut  off.  Other  similar  stitches  are  to 
be  made,  and  the  wound  is  dressed  upon  the  surface  by  smearing 
it  with  an  ointment  of  tar  and  powdered  blue  vitriol.  If  the 
wound  is  punctured  and  deep,  it  should  be  dressed  by  injecting 
with  a  syringe  a  few  drops  of  compound  tincture  of  benzoin,  and 
inserting  in  it  a  plug  of  lint  or  tow  dipped  hi  the  same.  This  will 


DISEASES  OF  LAMBS.  245 

keep  the  wound  open  until  it  heals  from  the  bottom.  If  allowed 
to  close  before  the  bottom  is  healed,  an  abscess  will  be  formed, 
which  will  need  to  be  opened.  If  the  wound  is  in  such  a 
position  that  the  pus  formed  cannot  escape  freely,  it  should  be 
removed  twice  a  day  by  means  of  a  feather  or  a  swab  of  linen 
at  the  end  of  a  small  stick,  and  the  plug  soaked  in  tincture  of 
benzoin  inserted.  If  any  foreign  matter,  such  as  a  splinter  of 
wood,  remains  in  the  wound,  it  must  be  removed,  if  necessary 
by  enlarging  the  wound,  before  it  can  heal.  A  wound  that  is  dif- 
ficult to  heal  from  its  depth  and  narrowness,  may  sometimes  be 
made  more  tractable  by  opening  and  enlarging  it  at  the  top. 
Lacerated  wounds  will  need  to  be  treated  as  both  incised  and 
punctured  wounds.  Where  the  torn  parts  can  be  brought  to- 
gether, stitches  should  be  made,  and  where  the  flesh  is  separated 
from  the  surrounding  tissue,  the  fragments  may  be  cut  off.  The 
deeper  parts  should  then  be  treated  as  punctured  wounds.  Such 
wounds  are  long  in  healing,  because  skin  is  reproduced  only  from 
the  edges  of  the  sound  surface.  As  many  of  the  lacerated  por- 
tions of  skin  as  possible  should  be  brought  together,  so  as  to  form 
edges  from  which  the^new  growth  may  start.  It  will  be  a  ques- 
tion if  the  value  of  the  sheep  in  this  case  will  repay  the  time  and 
labor  spent  in  treating  it.  If  not,  to  take  its  skin  at  the  outset 
may  be  the  most  advisable  course.  To  cure  a  large  wound  in  the 
fly  season  is  a  work  of  much  trouble. 

Sprains  are  not  uncommon  accidents  in  a  large  flock.    They  are 
reduced  very  easily  by  rest,  and  the  use  of  a  liniment  such  as 

Olive-oil  1  pint. 

Ammonia  Water...  2  ounces. 


DISEASES   PECULIAR   TO   LAMBS. 

Lambs  frequently  fall  victims  to  some  diseases  which  seem  to 
affect  them  more  virulently  than  they  do  grown-up  sheep,  or  else 
the  young  animal  having  less  strength  or  vitality  than  the  mature 
one,  more  easily  succumbs  to  those  diseases.  In  its  earlier  life 
it  is  also  affected  with  some  disorders  peculiar  to  its  condition. 
These  diseases  call  for  special  treatment.  The  most  troublesome 
ailment  to  which  lambs  are  subject,  are  those  of  the  digestive  or- 
gans, and  chief  amongst  this  is 

Diarrhea  or  "  White  Scours". — In  the  unweaned  lamb  diarrhea 
takes  the  form  generally  known  as  "  white  scours."  This  appears 


246  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

as  a  liquid  discharge  of  a  white  color,  which  is  simply  the  passage 
through  the  bowels  of  undigested  milk.  It  is  caused  by  a  change 
in  the  quality  of  the  ewe's  milk,  which  is  not  coagulated  in  the 
lamb's  stomach,  and  remains  as  an  irritative  agent,  exciting  the 
bowels  to  undue  action,  by  which  the  milk  is  discharged  soon 
after  it  is  swallowed,  almost  without  change.  The  food  of  the  ewe 
probably  has  much  to  do  with  this,  as  the  trouble  is  most  frequent 
when  the  ewe  is  fed  upon  rank,  succulent,  watery  herbage,  or  an 
excess  of  roots.  When  this  cause  does  not  exist,  it  arises  from  a 
disordered  condition  of  the  lamb's  stomach.  When  the  former 
cause  is  suspected,  the  ewe  should  be  treated.  The  food  should 
be  changed  to  other  kinds  of  a  more  solid  and  nutritious  charac- 
ter. A  poorer  pasture  should  be  provided,  or  hay  be  given  for  a 
few  days,  along  with  some  crushed  oats  and  corn,  or  malt,  linseed, 
cotton-seed-meal,  bran,  or  peas.  The  lamb  should  receive  the 
following  daily,  until  recovered,  viz  : 

Linseed-oil 1  teaspoonful. 

Essence  of  Ginger 5  drops. 

When  the  cause  exists  within  the  lamb,  two  teaspoonf uls  of  the 
following  astringent  mixture  may  be  given  night  and  morning, 
after  the  before  mentioned  has  operated,  viz : 

Prepared  Chalk 1  ounce. 

Powdered  Catechu 4  drams. 

"  Ginger 2      " 

"  Opium "A    " 

Peppermint  Water , 1  pint. 

to  be  mixed.    Shake  before  administering. 

Sometimes  the  discharge  consists  of  a  pale,  greenish  liquid,  sim- 
ilar to  whe}'- ;  this  is  the  result  of  indigestion,  as  the  food  of  the 
lamb  taken  in  excess  is  coagulated  in  the  stomach,  and  accumu- 
lates sometimes  to  several  pounds  in  quantity.  When  this  occurs, 
in  addition  to  the  looseness  and  color  of  the  dung,  the  lamb  is 
dull,  walks  raoodily  behind  the  ewe  with  its  head  drooped,  and 
the  abdomen  is  !iard  and  swollen.  The  following  should  then  be 
given  twice,  viz :  Carbonate  of  Magnesia,  half  ounce,  mixed  in 
water,  to  be  followed  by  half  an  ounce  of  Epsom  salts  in  a  teacup- 
f ul  of  water,  after  which  the  astringent  medicine  should  be  given. 
This  course  of  treatment  should  be  followed  in  case  of  the  "  green 
scours,"  which  may  happen  after  weaning,  when  the  lamb  is 
turned  upon  clover  pasture.  Sometimes  the  presence  of  worms  in 
the  stomach  and  intestines  will  cause  a  looseness  of  the  bowels. 
In  such  a  case  the  discharge  from  the  bowels  will  be  mixed  with 


DISEASES  OF   LAMBS.  247 

slime  or  mucus.  The  treatment  should  then  be  as  follows :  give 
to  a  year-old  lamb 

Linseed-oil 1  ounce. 

Powdered  Opium 3  grains. 

Starch 1  ounce. 

mixed  in  boiling  water  to  make  a  draught.  A  teacupful  of  rice 
water  should  be  given  twice  a  day.  The  above  to  be  repeated  the 
second  day.  After  the  irritation  of  the  bowels  is  removed,  give 
the  following: 

Linseed-oil 2  ounces. 

Spirits  of  Turpentine 4  drams. 

to  be  repeated  weekly  for  a  month  if  considered  necessary. 

Constipation. — When  this  occurs,  the  dung  is  scanty  and  at  long 
intervals  passes  in  lumps,  which  are  glazed  and  hard.  There  is 
pain  at  the  times  of  discharge,  which  is  evinced  by  the  arching 
of  the  back,  and  peculiar  but  expressive  actions  of  the  lamb.  The 
treatment  consists  hi  injections  of  warm  water,  with  two  or  three 
half-ounce  doses  of  linseed-oil,  given  at  intervals  of  six  hours. 
The  food  should  consist  of  oat-meal,  or  linseed  gruel,  sweetened 
with  molasses ;  if  it  will  not  be  taken  hi  that  way,  it  should  be 
given  by  means  of  a  horn. 

Spasmodic  Colic  produces  severe  pains,  occurring  in  paroxysms. 
The  lamb  falls  and  struggles,  or  remains  with  eyes  fixed,  as  if 
convulsed.  It  is  generally  an  accompaniment  of  constipation,  and 
always  of  indigestion.  The  treatment  is  to  give  the  following 
mixture,  viz: 

Tincture  of  Rhubarb 1  dram. 

Carbonate  of  Soda 1    " 

Warm  Water  sweetened  with  Molasses 2  ounces. 

This  should  be  administered  slowly  with  a  spoon.  After  the 
spasms  are  relieved,  give  half  an  ounce  of  linseed-oil. 

Paralysis. — This  disease  may  occur  through  a  severe  chill  or 
exposure  to  cold  rains,  or  as  a  symptom  of  chronic  indigestion 
from  inaction  of  the  stomach.  The  latter  is  to  be  suspected  when 
the  appetite  is  depraved,  and  sand,  earth,  and  coarse  matter  is 
eagerly  swallowed.  In  the  former  case,  a  warm  bath,  with  fric- 
tion upon  the  spine,  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  or  ammonia  water, 
followed  by  a  few  days  nursing,  may  be  found  useful.  In  the 
latter  case,  the  symptoms  and  post-mortem  appearance  show  that 
the  base  of  the  brain,  the  spine,  and  the  nervous  system  proceed- 
ing to  the  stomach  are  affected.  The  lamb  suffers  severely  as  if  in 
great  pain.  It  is  unable  to  rise  upon  its  hind  legs,  and  is  con- 


248  THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 

vulsed  with  spasms ;  the  teeth  are  ground  together,  and  the  breath- 
ing is  quick  and  hard,  and  death  generally  results.  The  only  defi- 
nite directions  that  are  likely  to  result  favorably,  are  to  prevent 
the  disease  by  watching  the  condition  of  the  lamb  after  it  is 
weaned,  and  to  provide  such  food  as  shall  keep  it  in  a  thriving 
condition.  Poverty  of  blood  being  the  direct  cause,  any  treat- 
ment that  will  avoid  that  condition  will  be  helpful.  A  small 
quantity  of  linseed-cake-rneal,  bran,  or  ground  oats,  should  be 
given  daily  after  weaning,  and  until  the  first  winter  is  past.  Lambs 
of  rapidly  growing  breeds  cannot  endure  stinting  in  food,  the  de- 
mands of  their  constitution  must  be  supplied  to  its  full  capacity, 
or  the  health  suffers,  and  instead  of  becoming  simply  poor  and 
stunted,  they  become  diseased.  Disease  thus  induced  cannot  be 
expected  to  submit  to  medicine,  and  the  only  natural  remedy  is 
apt  to  be  applied  too  late  to  be  of  service. 

Pale  Disease,  Husk,  Verminous  Bronchitis, — This  disease  con- 
sists in  the  presence  of  worms  in  the  air-passages  of  lambs.  These 
produce  great  irritation  and  violent  coughing.  The  interruption 
thus  resulting  to  the  aeration  of  the  blood  in  the  lungs,  causes  gen- 
eral disturbance  of  the  system.  The  appetite  fails,  the  condition 
rapidly  falls  off,  and  anamia,  "pale  disease,"  or  "the  bloodless 
condition,"  takes  place,  beneath  which  the  lambs  rapidly  sink. 
How  the  worms,  iu  large  numbers,  find  their  way  into  the  air-pas- 
sages of  so  young  animals,  is  a  query  which  as  yet  cannot  be  satis- 
factorily solved.  They  are  there,  however,  and  that  fact  must  be 
sufficient  for  the  shepherd.  These  worms  are  a  species  of  strongy- 
lus  or  thread  worm,  closely  akin  to  the  fatal  "  gape-worm  "  (also 
a  strongylus),  which  destroys  so  many  young  chickens.  It  is  the 
same  species  which  inhabits  the  lungs  and  bronchial  tubes  of  the 
sheep.  The  lamb  being  less  robust,  is  carried  off  with  greater  ease 
by  these  attacks,  than  the  full-grown  sheep.  Prevention  is  the 
best  remedy.  Lambs  should  not  be  allowed  to  follow  sheep 
upon  the  same  pasture,  nor  to  pasture  upon  meadows  that  have 
been  top-dressed  with  manure  from  the  sheep  stable  or  yards.  No 
medicine  can  reach  the  lungs,  except  through  the  blood,  and  but 
few  affect  them  in  this  way.  Sulphur,  turpentine,  and  assaf oetida, 
are  in  part  exhaled  through  the  lungs,  and  these  medicines  alone 
can  be  depended  upon  to  reach  these  parasites. 

The  treatment  recommended,  therefore,  is  to  administer  the  fol- 
lowing, viz : 

Linseed-oil Va  ounce. 

Spirits  of  Turpentine Va  dram. 

Assafcetida »0  grains. 


TABLE   OF  MEASURES.  249 

to  be  given  early  in  the  morning,  for  three  successive  days,  before 
feeding  or  turning  to  pasture,  and  no  feed  to  be  given  for  three 
hours  afterward.  Afterwards  the  following  to  be  given  daily : 

Molasses  or  Honey 1  pound. 

Flowers  of  Sulphur 4  ounces. 

one  tablespoonful  to  be  given  every  morning  for  ten  days. 

The  food  should  be  of  the  most  nutritious  and  digestible  char- 
acter, and  if  the  appetite  fails,  the  food,  until  the  appetite  returns, 
should  be  given  by  means  of  a  horn,  in  the  shape  of  gruel  or  infu- 
sions of  oatmeal,  linseed,  or  corn-meal,  sweetened  with  sugar. 


TABLE   OF   APPROXIMATE   EQUIVALENT   MEASURES. 

For  the  more  ready  use  of  the  prescriptions  mentioned  in  the 
preceding  chapter,  the  following  table  of  approximate  equivalent 
measures  is  here  given : 

FLUID  MEASUBES. 

One  teaspoonful  =  One  fluid  dram. 

One  tablespooiiful  =  Half  a  fluid  ounce. 

One  wine-glassful  =  Two  fluid  ounces. 

One  tea  (not  coffee),  cupful  =  A  quarter  of  a  pint 

One  tumblerful  =  Half  a  pint. 

It  will  be  more  convenient,  as  well  as  more  accurate,  to  have  an 
apothecary's  graduated  glass,  which  is  not  very  expensive,  and 
will  allow  all  the  needed  measurements  to  be  made  in  a  single 
utensil.  This  is  a  conical  glass  upon  a  foot,  and  provided  with  a 
lip  to  pour  from  ;  they  may  be  had  of  the  capacity  of  one  or  two 
ounces  up  to  a  pint ;  one  of  four  ounces  will  be  the  most  conve- 
nient ;  the  measures  are  marked  on  the  glass,  the  sign  f  3  standing 
for  fluid  dram,  and  f  §  for  fluid  ounce ;  Ss  is  used  for  half  of  either. 

A  set  of  apothecary  scales  and  weights  may  be  bought  for  a 
dollar  or  less.  The  grain  weights  are  of  thin  sheet  brass,  with 
number  of  grains  indicated  by  dots.  ^  stands  for  scruples,  and  3 
for  dram ;  the  number  of  each  being  indicated  by  numerals  follow- 
ing the  sign ;  Ss  is  used  for  half  of  either. 


INDEX. 


Abortion,  Prevention  of 241 

After-pains  in  Elwes 208 

*American  Merino,  Description  of 

the 92 

Analysis  of  Ash  of  Urine 15 

Dung 16 

Fodder 60-61 

Grains 64 

Manure — 79 

Roots 63 

Wool 146 

Yolk 147 

Anatomy  of  the  Sheep 163 

Anaemia,  Treatment  of 203 

Anthrax  Fever,  Treatment  of 209 

Aphtha,  Treatment  of 210 

Apoplexy,  Treatment  of 216 

*Barn  for  Sheep.  Description  of.. .  50 
*•"       "    Small  Farm 52 

*  "     a  Convenient 57 

*  Beacon-Down  Sheep,  Description 

of  the 138 

Bile,  Composition  and  Uses  of 183 

*Blackfaced    Scotch    Sheep,    De- 
scription of  the 122 

Black-leg.  Treatment  of ,209 

Bleeding,  how  Performed 190 

*  Bone,  Structure  of 173 

Brain  of  the  Sheep 174 

"      Water  on  the,  Treatment  of.216 

"     Worms  in  the 81 

Breeds  and  Breeding  Sheep 81 

Crossing 84 

"       Foreign 100 

"       Native... 89 

Breeders,  Maxims  for 89 

Breeding  for  Sex 86 

In-and  in 88 

Bronchitis.  Treatment  of 192 

Cabbage,  Culture  of 25 

Canker  of  the  Foot,  Treatment  of  .238 

Castration,  Performance  of 30-243 

Catarrh,  Treatment  of 191 

*  Cheviot    Sheep,  Description    of 
the 120 

Choking,  Treatment  of 194 

*  Circulation  of  the  Blood 177 

Clap,  Treatment  of  in  Rams 215 

Colic,  Spasmodic  Treatment  of 247 

Corn,  Comparative  Value  of 65 

Costiveness.  Treatment  of 195-247 

Cotton-Seed-Cake-Meal,  Value  of..  65 

*  Cotswold,  Description  of  the 107 

*'         Improvement  of  other 

Breeds  by  the 84 

250 


*  Cotswold-Leicester,    Description 

of  the 137 

Cotswold-Merino,    Description    of 

the 134 

Cotswold-Southdown,  Description 

of  the 138 

*Crook 156 

Cross-bred  Sheep 133-142 

Diarrhea,  Treatment  of 196-246 

Digestion,  Process  of. 179 

Digestive  Organs,  Diseases  of  the. 194 

Dip  for  Lambs  and  Sheep 47 

Diseases  of  Lambs 245 

"        "  the    Sheep,     Observa- 
tions on 188 

•*       Causes  and  Prevention  of.190 

"       of  the  Blood  201 

"        "    "    Bowels 199 

"       "    "   Brain 216 

"        «    "   Digestive  Organs..  194 

"        Enzoatic 206 

"        Epizootic* 210 

Of  the  Feet 234 

"        Parasitic 219 

"        of  the  Reproductive  Or- 
gans.*  214 

"        **      "     Respiratory     Or- 
gans  190 

"         "      "     Skin 229 

"        Special 242 

"        of  the  Urinary  Organs. .  .243 
Docking  Lambs 243 

*  Dog-guards  for  Fences. 32 

*  Dorset  Sheep,  Description  of  thellS 

Dropsy,  Treatment  of 205 

Dung,  Analysis  of  Ash  of 16 

Dysentery,  Treatment  of 207 

Ear  Marks 34 

Enzootic  Diseases 206 

Epilepsy,  Treatment  of 218 

Epizootic  Diseases 210 

Ewes,  Garget  in,  Treatment  of —  42 

in  Lamb,  Care  of 36 

Number  for  One  Ram ... 35 

Period  of  Gestation  of 34 

Record  of  Service  of 34 

Selection  rf  for  Breeding. ..  43 
Yeaning,  Treatment  of. .  .36-45 
and  Lambs,  Management 

of 33-37 

Eyes,  Disease  of  the 242 

Fattening  Sheep  for  Market 78 

*  Feed-Rack 31-59 

Feeding,  Experiments  in 66-68-70 

"        Boots....  27 


INDEX. 


251 


Fences,  Portable 27 

Flax-Seed,  Nutritive  Value  of. ...    65 
Flesh  and  Blood,  Analysis  of  Ash  of  15 
"     Quantity  Produced   by  Cer- 
tain Foods 67 

Flesh-fly,  the 234 

*  Fluke,  the  Liver,  Description  of.  220 
Fodder  Crops 22 

"     Analysis  of 60 

"     Nutritive  Value  of 61 

Foods  for  Winter  Feeding 59 

"     Composition  of  Various 60 

4i     Choice  of 65 

"     Proper  Allowance  of 72 

"     Quantity  of,  Needed 66 

"  "        for    a    Pound    of 

Flesh 67 

Foot,  Description  of  the 235 

44     Rot,  Treatment  of 236 

Foot-and-Mouth-Disease 210-238 

Fractures  of  the  Bones 244 

*  French  Merino,  Description  of. .  .128 

Gad-fly,  the 233 

Garget,  Treatment  of 241 

Giddiness  or  Turnsick,  Treatment 

for 226 

Grains,  Nutritive  Value  of  Various  64 

Grasses,  Composition  of  Various..  17 

"       Suitable  for  Pasture . . . ,  ,^   16 

*  Hampshire-Down  Sheep,  Descripv  _, 
tionof. 116 

Heart,  Structure  and  Functions  of.  177 
Hoven,  Treatment  of ,196 

*  Hurdles,  Use  of 23 

*  "         for  Refractory  Ewe 37 

*  Hydatids  in  the  Brain 226 

Inflammation  of  the  Bladder 213 

"  "  Bowels 199 

"  "  "  Brain 216 

"  "  Liver 201 

Influenza,  Treatment  of 206 

Intestines  of  the  Sheep 182 

Kentucky,  Improved,  Sheep 91 

*  Kidney,  Structure  of  the 186 

Lacteal  Vessels 184 

Lambing,  Diseases  Connected  with.239 
Lambs,  Castrating 39-243 

*  "       Dipping 48 

*'       Diseases  of 45-245 

"       Docking 39-243 

"       Feeding 40 

44       Laxative  for 41 

44       Newly-born,  Care  of 37 

"       Raising  Early  Market 73 

44       Twin,  Feeding 37 

*'"       Weaning 38 

Lamb's-Cordial 46 

*  Lamb-Creep 41 

*  Laurel,  Poisoning  by 198 

Leicester,  Improvement  of   Other 

Breeds  by 84 

*  "         Description  of  the 103 

*  Leicester-Merino,  Description  of 
the 135 

*  Lincoln.  Description  of  the 100 

Linseed-Oil-Cake-Meal,  Value  of...  64 

44       44      '4       "       Substitute 

for 65 


Litter  for  Sheds 58 

Liver,  Congestion  of  the 200 

"      Description  of  the 183 

44       Inflammation  of  the 201 

"      Rot.  the 219 

Lockjaw,  Treatment  of 218 

*  Louse,  the  Sheep 233 

*  Lungs  of  the  Sheep 176 

Lunor,worms  in  the,  Treatment  f  or.223 

Manure,  Value  of 79 

Markets 8-73-81 

Market  Lambs,  Methods  of  Raising  74 

*  "  '4       Box  for  Shipping..  76 

14       Profit  of 78 

Measures,  Explanation  of 249 

Merino,  American 92 

"        French 128 

Saxon 94-130 

Silesian 132 

Spanish 8-127 

44       Importation  of...  93 

"       Improvement  of ..  95 

Maturity  of 43 

*  Ram,  Portrait  of 98 

Wool,  Value  of 94 

"       Weights  of  Fleeces  96 

Mexican  Sheep 90 

Mustard,  White,  for  Fodder 22 

Nerves  of  the  Sheep 74 

*  Nets  for  Folding  Sheep *9 

Oil-Cake,  Feeding  Value  of 64 

"      "      Manurial  Value  of 80 

Ophthalmia,  Treatment  of 242 

*  Oxford-Down  Sheep,  Description 
ofthe 110 

Pale  Disease  of  Lambs 248 

Packinp  Fleeces 161 

Palsy,  Treatment  of 218 

Paralysis,  Treatment  of 217-247 

Parasitical  Diseases 219 

Parsley,  Value  of  in  Pastures 17 

Parturient  Apoplexy  and  Fever.208-240 
Pasture,  Dry,  Necessary  for  Health  14 
Change  of,  Advantageous.  31 

Extent  of,  in  the  U.  S 10 

Exposure  of 22 

Grasses  Suitable  for 16 

Management  of 20 

Suitable  for  Sheep 12 

Pining,  Treatment  of 203 

Plants,  Poisonous 108 

Plethora,  Treatment  of 203 

Pleurisy,  Treatment  of 193 

Pneumonia,  Treatment  of 192 

Poisoning,  Treatment  of 198 

Pox,  Sheep,  Treatment  of .211 

Prices  of  Wool  in  the  World 166 

Production  of  Wool  in  the  World.  .165 

Purgatives,  Use  of 189 

Ram,  Selection  of  the 49 

Red- water,  Treatment  of 207 

Reproductive  Organs,  the 187 

Respiration,  Process  of 175 

Respiratory  Organs,  Diseases  of. .  .190 
Retention  of  Urine,  Treatment  of  ..213 

Rheumatism,  Treatment  of 202 

*Romney  Marsh  Sheep,  Descrip- 


252 


THE  SHEPHERD'S  MANUAL. 


tion  of  the 104 

"Boot-Cutter 26 

*  "    Pulper 27 

Roots,  Culture  of 26 

Cutting 27 

Feeding 27 

Nutritive  Value  of. 63 

Quantity  Needed  for  a  KJock  72 

*  Storing  in  Pits 28 

Rot  of  the  Foot,  Treatment  of 2:36 

*  "  in  the  Liver,  Treatment  of 222 

Rumination,  Process  of 181 

Salt  Necessary  for  Sheep 33 

Saxon  Merino,  Description  of  the.  .130 

*  Scab,  Treatment  for 232 

Sea-Weed  Eaten  by  Sheep 19 

Scrofula,  Treatment  of 204 

Shearing  Sheep 158 

*  Shed  for  Pasture 32 

*  "     Mr.  Geo.  Grant's 53 

*  "     Mr.  Shaw's 54 

Sheep,  Census  of,  in  U.S.'50/60,170.167 

11       When  a  Lamb  Becomes  a ...  45 
Shelter,  Effect  of,  on-  Consumption 
ofFood 67 

*  Shropshire  Sheep,  Description  of.  112 
Silesian  Merino,  Description  of  thel'32 

*  Skeleton  of  the  Sheep 169 

*  Skin,  Structure  of  the 143 

Soils  Suitable  for  Pastures 12 

Sorting  Wool 165 

*  Southdown  Sheep,  Description  of  114 

-Merino,    Description 

ofthe 135 

Spanish  Merino,  Description  of  the!27 

Spleen,  Functions  of  the 185 

Sprains 245 

Stimulants,  Use  of 190 

*  Stomach  of  the  Sheep 180 

"       Foreign  Bodies  in  the.. 200 

Stretches,  Treatment  of 195 

Summer  Management  of  Sheep 11 

*  Table  for  Tying  Wool 162 

*  Tape-Worms 228 

Tagging  and  Trimming  Sheep 158 


*  Teeth,  Growth  of  the 45-171 

*  Tick,  the  Sheep 233 

Ticks,  Dip  for. .. 47 

*  Trochar  and  Canula 194 

Turnips,  Cultivation  of 24 

Folding  Sheep  Upon 25 

"       for  Winter  Feeding.. 24 

Urinary  Canal,  Sediment  in  the 214 

'•       Organs,  Functions  of  the.  185 

Uterus,  Inversion  of 242 

Urine,  Analysis  of  Ash  of 15 

Virginia  Sheep 91 

*  Washing  Sheep 155 

Water,  Necessity  of 21 

"       Quality  of 21 

*  Welsh  Mountain  Sheep,  Descrip- 
tion of  the 125 

Western  Plains,  Value  of,  for  Sheep 

Pastures 19 

Winds,  Effects  of,  on  Condition...  22 

Winter  Management  of  Sheep 49 

Womb,  Inversion  of 242 

Wool,  Break  in. 21 

"     Classification  of .148 

"     Composition  of 156 

*  "     How  to  Judge  of 150-153 

*  "     Packing 161 

"     Prices  of 149 

u     Quality  of,  a  Test  of 

Health 15-150 

"  "        "    Merino 99 

"     Sorting  .. 165 

"     Structure  of 142 

"     Value  of  Imports  of 10 

*  "     Washing  of 155 

"     World's  Production  of 165 

*  Worms,  the  Bladder 224 

*  "     'in  the  Brain 226 

' '       in  the  Bronchial  Tubes . .  223 

*  "       in  the  Intestines 229 

*  "       in  the  Lungs 223 

Wounds 244 

Yarrow,  Description  of ......  18 

YolkinWool 99 

"    Composition  of 147 


The  items  marked  with  a  *  are  illustrated. 


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